Abstract

Language and advertising are interconnected and play a significant role in communicating a message directly or indirectly. Direct roles concern buying decisions of the consumers while indirect roles establish a lasting relation of consumer with the brand. This research studies the language of copywriting of advertising focusing its role in developing consumer-brand relationship. The research uses mix of quantitative and qualitative methods based on the framework of Laswell’s model of communication. The study uses content analysis for examination of the language of print advertisements and the consumer brand relationship. Survey is used as method of data collection from magazines including ‘Akhbar e Jahan’ and ‘MAG’ published by Jang group of newspapers. The study finds that figurative language style is used more in Pakistani print advertisements in comparison to literal language. Moreover, the results prove that the copy writing of print advertisements does play a significant role in developing consumer-brand relationship.  

Key Words

Linguistic Analysis, Advertising Language, Figurative Language, Copy Writing, Print Advertisements, Brand Relation, Pakistan, Quantitative and Qualitative Method

Introduction

Since its beginning, advertising has been the non-personal communication of information (Bovee & Thill, 1997) about goods and services. This process of communication and conveying information has been taking place through various types an each one of them playing their role in communicating the messages. At present day, we live in an age brimming with brands and products and every individual is constantly bombarded with advertisements through both the mass media (television, newspaper) and new media (internet, social media). The principle purpose of advertisements is to make wishes, feelings, emotions, values, states of mind etc. towards the items in its viewers. It is an expressive and communicative medium that needs penetrating approaches to attain brand/product promotion.

One of the most significant elements among these alluring approaches is copy writing. The writing systems communicate information which makes copy writing an essential part of every type of advertisement (Gaur, 1985).  This is one element which isn’t medium limited. In a print advertisement (ad) we see and read the written content, in a radio ad we hear that content while in a TV Commercial (TVC) or social media, we can do all the three with that content i.e. see, read and listen, Thus, it won’t be wrong saying that copy writing is present at the base of every ad, no matter what the medium is. It is a fact that today, the digital medium is on the run by taking over the traditional communication mediums of television and print, but what it is unable to take over is the power of copy writing. This is an evidence of the fact that no advertising medium is complete without the copy writing language. Considering the role and significance of copy writing in advertising, it is now dealt on a broader perspective and has been recently termed as “content writing”. Today in the mob of brands headlines and slogans are those elements of copy writing, which distinguish brands and their individuality. This individuality associates them with their targeted consumers and vice versa.

Among the two main elements of an ad namely visuals and copy writing, if visuals are called to command attention and stimulate curiosity (Hecker & Stewart, 1988; Moriarity, 1987) then copy writing is said to be known to be the language of advertising. Both of them are responsible for making the initial impact and causing consumers to take note of it. This language is basically of two types, one is literal and one is figurative. Literal language means exactly what it says; while figurative is non-literal and uses different devices, like rhyme and rhythm, overstatement etc., to communicate pragmatically complex discourse goals. (Kreuz & Roberts, 1993) Literal language style may be the most easiest to interpret as it is plain and simple “as it is” language, but now the use of figurative language is also practically normal in advertisements since it has the dynamism to illustrate the words into pictures. The figurative language focuses on interpretation which can't be specifically expressed, thus encouraging further explanation (Katz & Turner, 1997).

The world today is saturated with brands, and then there are the advertisements (ads) trying to attempt a catch on the principal decision of the buyers. In this disarray of decisions, the purchasing activity of the buyer is most likely imperative. However for a more drawn out term, the customer's emotions about the brand turn out to be more vital. These emotions drive positives, for example, ideal brand dispositions, brand faithfulness, rehash buy and client support, etc. A strong, long term relation is regarded more important than instant buying decisions because an instant decision will have hundred options but loyalty is brought out through the relationships consumers have with brands. These relationships can be studied with respect to various elements, but in this research, the study is related to the language of advertising as to motivate individuals to perceive the item, recollect its name and influence buyers that it worth purchasing, ads depend absolutely on the use of this language, literal or non-literal (Colston & Katz, 1999).

Copy writing has been a part of advertising since forever now and considering its significance even in the years to come with respect to all mediums. It is important to know how the language of copy writing today exists in our media. Today in the mob of brands headlines and slogans are those elements of copy writing, which distinguish brands and their individuality. This individuality associates them with their targeted consumers and vice versa. Keeping in view the status of this brand-to-consumer conversation, Pakistan has little or close to no work done on these angles in general. Therefore, it gets to be vital that we concentrate how these components exist in our Pakistani publicizing media. Also to find if it plays any part in building up brand association with its buyer, does it help connecting a brand to the consumer or just essentially goes unnoticed. These are the kind of inquiries which this research means to explore. According to cultural theorist and analyst Ronald Barthe, an ad is divided into two components, i.e. linguistic and visual (Barthes, 1977) and in this study linguistics of a print ad are under analysis.




Objectives of the Research




This research aims:

a) To analyze the language (copy writing elements) used in the print ads. 

b) To determine the role of copy writing elements on consumer-brand relation.

The second part of study consists of those that can be further achieved from part one including: 

c) To study the classification of Pakistani print ads on the basis of their written content.

d) To investigate the most used type of each copy writing element of the print ads.

e) To investigate if Pakistani print ads are more informative than persuasive.

f) To find the three most used figurative language devices in targeted ads.

g) To inquire the preference of the consumer with respect to the language of advertising.

Literature Review

Literature on copy writing as a whole in Pakistan is scant. During the course of this research, two studies were found that were Pakistan related to the field of linguistics. First is a semantic analytical study by Noor, Mustafa, Muhabat, and Kazemian (2015) which focuses on the television commercial slogans. It includes studies in regard to types of meaning, especially associative. It is further sub categorized in, connotative, collective, affective, stylistic, thematic and reflective meaning. This research provides evidence of Pakistani television commercial slogans to be rich with semantics (personification, simile, hyperbole, metaphor, etc.). 

The second is the study of figurative language in Pakistani English newspapers by (Mahmood, 2014). This study critically analyzes the figurative language used in English newspapers of Pakistan to see how it is used to facilitate readers and communicate messages in an effective manner. The analysis of this study revealed that metonymy is the most frequently occurring figurative language device used in English newspapers of Pakistan. 

Moreover, there were numerous studies on brand loyalty, brand trust and buying behaviors of consumers in connection to certain companies respectively, but no studies were found on relation of copy writing with brand relationship. 

Internationally there are many studies done on the language of advertising, but few are close to this very research in terms of language analysis. Widynati (2013) has conducted a research on figurative language of Harper bazaar magazine advertisements. It showcases how and how much the six figurative devices under study occur in the specified magazine advertisements and concludes that figurative language occur the most in the headline of the advertisements. Similarly the studies by Lapsanska (2006) and Romanenko (2014) are also concerned with the language of advertisements, but both of them include the linguistic means namely morphological, phonological and lexical levels, which are different from this research. 

All these studies have helped this study in understanding the language study of advertisements. Moreover the review of these have also provided other studies concerned with advertising, language and other related terms for this research. 

Methodology

As mentioned above, this research focuses on two main aspects in which first is the analysis of the copy writing elements and the second is the role of copy writing in developing brand relationship. Hence, for the first part, content analysis is done and for the second, a survey is conducted.  The details of both the methods are given below.




Hypothesis




Following was the hypothesis produced on the basis of the objectives of this research which will be tested and answered by both methods respectively. 

H1: Copy writing plays a significant role in developing consumer-brand relationship.

Ho: Copy writing doesn’t play a significant role in developing consumer-brand relationship.

Sub Hypothesis




I: Headline of a print ad provides competitive uniqueness to the ad for the consumers.

II: Slogans in a print ad are the reason of brands recall for consumers.

III: Body copy of a print ad invokes awareness in a consumer about the brand.

H2: Copy writing helps in distinguishing between brands.

Ho: Copy writing does not helps in distinguishing between brands.

H3: Persuasive print advertisements are preferred over informational print advertisements.

Ho: Persuasive print advertisements are not preferred over informational print advertisements.

The” copy writing elements of print advertisements” are the independent variable of this study, namely headline, subhead, body copy and slogans. The “brand relationship” is the dependent variable as the study of its role is based on copy writing elements of print advertisements. Keeping in view the study of analysis as well as the role, the present study has used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies which are given below. 

Content Analysis

Content analysis conducted for studying the figurative language of copy writing elements in Pakistani print advertisements. Print advertisements of top twenty brand categories (% share of spent on magazine) were taken from English and Urdu magazines in 2016 as population for this study. The study shows that advertising day wise trend is the highest over weekends for both English and Urdu languages. Thus, magazines Akhbar e Jahan and MAG were collected from Jang Group of Newspapers. These were the two weekly publications. According to the readership survey published in 2009, Jang group is the largest group of print media in all the major cities of Lahore, Karachi, Islamabad and other urban areas. Moreover, Akhbar e Jahan and MAG are ranked number one among top ten Urdu and English magazines/digests respectively.

The sampling frame for this study consisted of a list of print advertisements from the magazines, namely: MAG from English magazines and Akhbar e Jahan from Urdu magazines and the months from January to April 2016 were taken to select the print advertisements. These advertisements were 60 in number for Akhbar e Jahan and 40 for MAG and were studied in the Quaid e Azam library, Lahore from their archives. Half of the total sampling frame was taken as the sample size. Thus, for Akhbar e Jahan it was 30 and for MAG it was 20. Systematic sampling was used while picking out advertisements from a sampling frame of advertisements belonging to the above mentioned 20 categories from the issues of MAG and Akhbar e Jahan. The nth number was calculated accordingly as given below,

Akhbar e Jahans sampling frame = Approx 60 advertisements

Sample size = Half of total = 30/60 = nth = 2

MAGS sampling frame = approx 40 advertisements

Sample size = half of total = 20/40 = nth= 2

Thus, every 2^nd advertisement was chosen from the sampling frame of both Akhbar e Jahan and MAG respectively. For the figurative analysis, categories have been made according to Taylor’s classification of figurative expressions in the book “Understanding the Elements of Literature”. He has classified these expressions into three groups which are as follows:

Comparison and Substitution: Rhythm and rhyme, simile, metaphor, allusion, metonymy, analogy, and allegory.

Representation by Substitution: Synecdoche, personification, symbol, imagery.

Contrast by Discrepancy and Inversion: Overstatement, understatement, paradox (oxymoron), irony, and puns. (Taylor, 1981)

Table 1. Classification of Figurative Speech

Comparison & Substitution	Representation	Contrast
Rhyme & Rhythm	Synecdoche	Overstatement/Hyperbole
Simile	Personification	Understatement
Metaphor	Symbol	Paradox/Oxymon
Allusion	Onomatopia	Irony
Analogy		Pun
Allegory
Metonymy

Further, to study the classification of print advertisements types, two categories of persuasive and informative advertisements were made according to MacInnis, Moorman, and Jaworski (1991) and Vakratsas and Ambler (1999). These categories with sub categories are as follows along with the type classification of copy writing elements,

Informative:  About the brand, brand attributes benefits, users, or usage situation

Persuasive:   Cognitive, emotional or subconscious

 

Table 2. Print ad Type classification

Informational	Persuasive
About the brand	Cognitive
Brand attributes	Emotional
Benefits	Contextual
Users
Usage situation

Table 3. Copy Writing Element Type Classification

Headline	Subhead	Slogan	Body Copy
News	Descriptive	Descriptive	Straight line
Assertion	Brand recognizable	Persuasive	Dialogue
How to	Persuasive	Creative/catchy	Testimonial
Puzzles	Straight line	Emotive	Narrative
Question	Dialog	Brand recognizable	Direct response
Associations	Narrative	None	Descriptive
Command	None		None
None

 

Survey

 

This is the tool used for this research to study if copy writing elements play any role in developing a brand relation. It was developed keeping in view the objectives and hypothesis of this very research. Moreover, many of the questions were constructed with the help of content analysis tables and categories. The city of Lahore is the universe of this study and population is the people from Lahore who are literate and understand the written content of the print media.

Cluster sampling was used to collect the data for this study. The clusters were made on area and university basis. The universities selected as clusters were namely Punjab University, Lums and Beaconhouse National University and the areas chosen for this study were Model town, Defence and Gulberg. After making these clusters which are homogeneous in nature, simple random sampling was applied among these clusters where 30 surveys were randomly distributed among each cluster. For sampling purpose for this survey, the samples needed to be, one literate and second of age 18 or above to have an understanding about the written content present in print advertisements. Total 200 (dividing 30 surveys in each cluster).To investigate the brand relation with copy writing elements, a questionnaire comprising of 25 questions related to the investigation was constructed. Among these 21 questions, first 6 were demographics based. Then 4 questions were made in accordance to major hypothesis and its sub hypothesis. All others were made to serve the answers for all other objectives under study.





Table 4: Analytical Construct



Findings

The first part consists of quantitative findings of the survey through a questionnaire, while the second part consists of data analysis of the content of the respective sampled magazine advertisements.

 

Table 5. Content Analysis

Akhbar e Jahan
Month		Ad type		Copy Writing Language Style				By  Elements
	Total no. of advertisements	Informative	Persuasive	Literal	Figurative			Literal				Figurative
					Comparison	Representation	Contrast	Headline	Subhead	Body copy	Slogan	Headline	Subhead	Body copy	Slogan
January	17	13	4	14	19	6	11	0	4	9	1	17	2	6	9
February	5	3	2	4	6	2	3	0	0	2	2	5	1	2	1
March	4	2	2	2	3	2	3	1	0	0	1	3	0	3	0
April	6	4	2	7	4	3	3	1	1	4	1	5	1	0	2
MAG
Month		Ad type		Copy writing language style				By elements
	Total no. of advertisements	Informative	Persuasive	Literal	Figurative			Literal				Figurative
Table Continued on Next Page
Table Continued from Previous Page
					Comparison	Representation	Contrast	Headline	Subhead	Body copy	Slogan	Headline	Subhead	Body copy	Slogan
January	8	6	2	12	5	4	0	3	4	5	0	5	0	1	1
February	2	2	0	3	2	0	0	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	1
March	3	2	1	2	3	3	0	2	0	0	0	1	1	2	2
April	5	4	1	10	4	2	2	3	0	4	2	2	2	1	4
Total	50	36	14	55	46	22	22	11	10	25	7	39	7	15	20

 

 

 

Content Analysis Findings

 

To carry out content analysis data was collected with the help of coding sheets from selected magazines, namely Akhbar e Jahan and MAG the weekly

Table 5 shows that out of 50 total print advertisements which were studied, 36 (72%) advertisements came out to be informative while only 14 (28%) were persuasive. Then the literal and figurative language study of every element of copy writing showed that only 55 times literal language style and 90 times figurative language has been used in the Pakistani print advertisements. Within the figurative language style the most used devices in the category of comparison and substitution has been used however other two category devices are used equally. The element wise study of the copywriting shows that literal language style is used mostly in the body of the advertisements and least used in the slogans. On the other hand, figurative language is most used in the headline element of copy writing whereas it is least used in the sub headings. The findings also show that ads in Akhbar e Jahan and Mag were in Urdu and English respectively but both were also using bilingual language approximately in same number.

 

Survey Findings

 

The descriptive findings of the survey show that most people read newspaper or magazines on weekends and they tend to like seeing print ads in newspaper and magazines. Also people think that a print ad is incomplete without both the visual and copywriting elements. The results show that literal language style attracts less people while figurative language style is the one that attracts people the most in print ads. The most important copywriting element of print ad is slogan while headline is the second most important copywriting element according to survey results. Also body copy happens to be the least favorite copy writing element in print ads.

Findings show that in a print ad, in different figurative language styles, rhyming slogans are the ones that help most in recalling a brand. In addition most people like creative type of slogans while least favorite type of slogans is descriptive ones. Slogan is that element of a print advertisement that helps most in remembering a brand while visual and color comes after it. The results show that the percentage of people for who body copy invokes awareness is higher than those for whom it doesn’t. Also a larger percentage of people think that a headline provides competitive uniqueness to a brand and they feel related to a brand through its written content. Besides, more people like comparison and contrast device of figurative language, leaving representation category on the last of being favorite. Among the two types of print ads, people prefer persuasive type of print advertisements over informational type of advertisements. So according to results copy writing elements helps in distinguishing between brands.

Discussion

As mentioned, this research is aimed at analyzing the language of the copy writing elements in the print ads and its role in developing a brand relationship. The data assessment through both the content and survey methods, description of which is given below, it’s evident that the communication done by the brands through the copy writing elements of print ads hold a role in developing a brand relationship, proving the authenticity of this communication of brands with consumers through copy writing of print medium. Given below is the objective wise data evaluation with description. 




To Analyze The Language (Copy Writing Elements) Used In The Print Advertisements. 




The results show that literal style of language occurs only 55 times in the copy writing elements of the print ads. On the other hand the use of figurative style occurs 90 times in the copy writing elements of the print ads. It further shows that literal language style is most used in the body copy elements of ads in selected magazines while figurative language style is mostly used in the headline of ads, making literal body copy to be 50% and figurative headlines 78% of the total.

On the whole the content analysis of the magazines, namely Akhbar e Jahan and MAG, shows that more than one forth (28%) of the print ads use total figurative language style. Of these, maximum i.e. 64% are those which use both literal and figurative language and only a mere 6% use literal language style overall in their copy writing elements. After the language style of the copy writing elements, the graph no 1 and 2 show the division of the language of copy writing elements, both magazine wise and in totality. It depicts that English language is most used in the print ads.

Graph 1 & 2

Language Style and Contents Used in Ads

Graph 1



Graph 2




The Role of Copy Writing Elements in Developing Consumer-Brand Relation

To determine the role of copy writing elements in developing brand relationship, the constructed sub hypothesis is studied step by step in light of the data collected through survey.

 

        I.            The headline of a print ad provides competitive uniqueness to the ad for the consumers.

The data interpretation shows that there were only few (4.4%) of the people to whom a headline never provides a competitive uniqueness whereas there were about one third (29.4%) people to whom it does. On the whole a headline of a print ad provides competitive uniqueness to majority i.e. 95.6% of the people in different ways. Thus it shows that the headline of a print advertisement provides a competitive uniqueness for the consumers.

      II.            The slogans in a print ad are the reason of brands recall to consumers.

The results shows that for half of the respondents (48.5%) slogans of a print ad always were the reason for brands recall, along with the approximately same percentage of them for whom the slogan sometimes was the reason for a brand recall. Moreover, there were only (3.5%) of the respondents for whom a slogan of a print ad never recalls the brand for them. This clearly depicts that slogans in a print ad are the reason of brands recall to consumers.

   III.            Body copy of a print ad invokes awareness in a consumer about the brand.

Findings of the study reveal that few (5.9%) of respondents body copy doesn’t invoke awareness about a brand. On the other hand, majority (94.2%) of the respondents for whom the body copy of a print ad invokes awareness about the brand in different ways. About one third (31.4%) of the respondents were those who always get aware about the brand through the body copy of the print ads. This proves that body copy of a print ad does invoke awareness about a brand in a consumer. Moreover results show that written content of a print ad is not only mostly believed by the readers/consumers but it also makes them feel related to the brand which adds to the importance of the role copy writing plays in developing brand relationship.

 

H1: Copy writing plays a significant role in developing consumer-brand relationship.	Accepted
Ho: Copy writing doesn’t play a significant role in developing consumer-brand relationship.	Rejected

 

Thus, the positive results of the above sub hypothesis shows a strong relation between the two variables, namely copy writing elements (independent) and brand relationship (dependant), resulting in the acceptance of the major hypothesis (H1) that copy writing plays a significant role in developing brand-relationship.

 

The Classification of Pakistani Print Advertisements on the Basis of Contents

 

The study of the print ads was done according to classification by MacInnis, Moorman, & Jaworski, given in the content analysis part. The results shows that the total percentage of informative advertisements was maximum i.e. 72%, while the persuasive print ads were just 28%. The bar graph no 3 shows the advertisement type division of the studied print ads. 

Graph 3

Ad Type of Print Advertisements




The Most frequently Used Types of Each Copy Writing Element in Ads.




The graphs 4, 5 and 6 showed that the headlines of print advertisements were of the assertion type mostly in both magazines while the second number is of news type headlines. In the subhead and body copy, the descriptive type has been used the most while the second number is of narration in body copy. Persuasive slogans were found the most in the print ads while the second number is taken by brand recognizable slogans.

Graph 4 & 5

Most used types of Headlines and Subheads



Graph 6:

Most Used Types of Body Copy and Slogan







Pakistani Print Advertisements: Information vs Persuasion

The results clearly show that the percentage of informative ads was 44% higher than persuasive ads which prove that Pakistani print ads are more informative than persuasive.

 

 

The Most Frequent Figurative Devices in Pakistani Print Ads

 

The findings of content analysis shows that the three most used figurative language devices in print ads were overstatement, rhyme & rhythm with symbol and allegory. This measure is according to the number of times these devices have appeared in the copy writing elements of the print advertisement. The following table shows the number of times the figurative language devices have appeared in the print ads.

 

Table 7. Frequency of Figurative Devices

 

Comparison & Substitution	Rhyme & Rhythm	14
	Analogy	6
	Allegory	10
	Metaphor	5
	Metonymy	7
	Simile	3
Representation	Synecdoche	4
	Personification	8
	Symbol	10
Contrast	Overstatement	22

 

To Inquire The Preference Of The Consumer With Respect To The Language Of Advertising.

 

Results of the study show that the language style which attracts the most consumers is figurative language. Moreover, among the devices of the figurative language, the most favorite is comparison and contrast with a very minute percentage difference from contrast category. According to majority (60.3%) of the respondents, copy writing elements help distinguishing between brands which makes the H2 acceptable. Similarly the results show that majority i.e. 64% of the respondents prefer the persuasive type of ads over 36% of informational ads. This double difference leads to the acceptance of H3 stating that persuasive print advertisements are preferred over informational print advertisements.

 

H2:  Copy writing helps in distinguishing between brands.	Accepted
Ho: Copy writing does not help in distinguishing between brands.	Rejected

 

H3: Persuasive print advertisements are preferred over informational print advertisements.	Accepted
Ho: Persuasive print advertisements are not preferred over informational print advertisements.	Rejected

 

Findings show that slogan is the most important copy writing element while least favorite of people is the body copy element of copy writing. Creative type slogans are favorite among people while the rhyming is that figurative style language of a slogan that helps people most in recalling a brand. Moreover, the most preferred type of body copy by the people is straight line body copy and the headline type which stands out the most for them in a print ad is news type headline. 

Conclusion

The data for this research has been collected through both the qualitative and quantitative methods. This study not only provides objective oriented answers but also provide further consumer-preference based answers in relation to copy writing which can prove to be beneficial in future. As per the literature review, the semantic analytical study by (Noor, Mustafa, Muhabat, & Kazemian, 2015) is concerned with the study of slogans (an element of copy writing) but in a different medium i.e. television. The semantic study provides evidence of Pakistani television commercial slogans to be rich with semantics and the analysis of this research also show that overstatement (hyperbole), personification and metaphor are among the most used devices in the slogans of Pakistani print advertisements. Slogans of brands are usually the statements that remain unchanged no matter what the medium be thus, that is why the results of the semantic study are quite in line with this very research. The other study of Harper magazine by (Widyanti, 2013) concludes that figurative language occur the most in the headline of the advertisements, which again coincides with the results of this very research, showing that figurative language occurs most in the headline of Pakistani print advertisements. Thus, it wouldn’t be wrong concluding that the use of figurative language is most in the headline element of copy writing in print advertisements. 

This research not only finds answers in media study it also gives an insight to the consumer point of view concerned with language part with the media. It’s interesting to find that figurative language style is not only seen the most in the print ads of Pakistan but is also preferred by the reader/consumer. On the other side literal language style is seen very less in comparison to figurative and appears mostly in the body copy element of copy writing, which happens to be the least favorite element of copy writing for the people. There is only one contrast seen through this research which is that consumers/readers of Pakistan prefer persuasive advertisements over informational while the majority of the Pakistani print advertisements are informative in type. 

Recommendations

This research aimed at gaining the maximum output through the study of the written content of print ads. Thus, it expects to be used in various theoretical and practical ways which are mentioned below.

• With its broad spectrum, this research can prove to be a base for future researchers in many related fields.

• With all its analysis provided, this research will aid the producer and copywriters of Pakistan and abroad to evaluate the present language scenario in Pakistani print advertisements.

• This research is helpful for copywriters/designers/conceptual artists in the advertising world to understand consumer choice for print media and its related elements which will then aid in their designing/writing part.

• This study is important to understand the language being used in Pakistani print advertisements which is beneficial not only for advertising world related to print media, but also in other mediums where copy writing hold the same value.

• As this study provides the basic of the brand relationship with copy writing as well as the consumer preferences, thus it helps advertising as well marketing people on how to develop relations with consumers through the written content.

As for as the future agenda of research is concerned following are can be explored:

• brand relationship with visuals, colors, slogans’, etc. and consumers’ preferences

• Television/radio ads can also be studied

• Copy writing and buying behavior, etc.

References

• Barthes, R. (1977).
• Bovee, C. L., & Thill, V.J. (1997). Advertising Excellence. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Colston, H. L., and Katz, N.A. (1999). Figurative langugae comprehension. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
• Gaur, A. (1992). A History of Writing. (2nd Edition, illustrated, revised). UK, British Library.
• Hecker, S., & Stewart, D. W. (1988). Nonverbal communication in advertising. Lexington: Lexington Books.
• Katz, A. N., & Turner, M. (1997). Figurative language and thought. Oxford University Press.
• Lapsanska, J. (2006). Language analysis of advertising slogans. Thesis, Comenius University, English language and literature, UK.