Key Words

Managing classrooms is the central component of effective teaching and learning practices and, therefore, has always been the concern of teachers. The literature demonstrated that classroom management techniques are generally oriented either towards discipline or towards engaging students with learning. Teachers generally perceive classroom management techniques with an orientation either towards one or both, and these perceptions are likely to guide them about the way they manage their classrooms. In this context, the main intent of this research was to identify techniques that school teachers perceive as classroom management techniques (along with their orientation) and to examine the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students’ learning. This research further examines gender differences among teachers related to these questions. This research used descriptive survey research design. The teachers in 190 elementary schools of district Dera Ghazi Khan served as population. Using cluster and stratified random sampling techniques, a sample of 406 elementary school teachers was selected. Of these 406 teachers, 128 were female, and 278 were male. A questionnaire, adopted from Asiyai (2011), was employed as a research tool. The reliability of the tool was computed through Cronbach-Alpha coefficient, and validity was ensured by aligning items with research questions. It was found that teachers highly believe that although both discipline- and engagement-oriented aspects of management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, both are also effective for students' learning.

Key Words

Classroom Management, Discipline, Engagement, Learning, Teachers, School

Introduction

Managing classrooms is the central component of effective teaching and learning practices and, therefore, has always been the concern of teachers. Effective management of classrooms is also believed to be essential for the construction of such environment that is conducive to effective learning (Akar, 2003; Castolo, 2007; Temli-Durmus, 2016). Likewise, effective management of classrooms generally results in increased students' achievement and more intended behavior (Ergin, 2019; Y?ld?z, 2017). Similarly, Oliver and Reschly (2007) believe that managing and organizing classrooms and students’ behavior is highly critical for achieving intended learning outcomes for students more positively. For these reasons, scholars believe that one of the most important responsibilities of teachers is to manage their classrooms effectively (Marashi & Assgar, 2019; Marzano, 2003). In view of the importance of managing classrooms ineffective way, elaboration of the concept of classroom management may be helpful.

The concept of classroom management encompasses a number of dimensions related to rules, procedures, management, seating arrangements, teaching modes, effective learning, resources, etc., as presented by scholars. For example, Marzano (2003) viewed classroom management as managing resources and students’ attendance, grouping students and ensuring compliance with the rules, regulations, and procedures. Brophy (2006) describes classroom management as managing the physical setting of a classroom, launching rules and regulations, measures for grabbing students’ attention towards learning, creating an environment conducive to learning, and engaging students in educational activities. Likewise, classroom management also refers to creating an environment that facilitates students’ learning and expects teachers to carry out a set of specific tasks such as developing procedures for running of the classroom; employing disciplinary actions if needed; developing and maintaining an effective, supportive, and caring relationship with students; planning and implementing instruction in such ways that optimize students’ learning; promoting collaborative work; encouraging students to engage in academic activities; engaging students in self-regulated activities; and assisting students to resolve their behavioural problems (Eran?l, Özcan, & Özek, 2019; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Kalin, Peklaj, Pe?jak, Levpuš?ek, & Zuljan, 2017; Marzano 2003). Classroom management also refers to teachers' activities that are likely to establish a positive environment within the classroom to support students' learning experiences (Martin, Sugarman, & McNamara, 2000).

The focus on various dimensions of managing classrooms is also reflected in the courses of classroom management. The content of such courses generally includes: fundamental concepts related to managing classrooms; rules and regulations related to classroom discipline; models of classroom management and discipline; managing students' behavior in the classroom; physical, psychological, and social aspects of the class; interactions and communication process in class; managing time and space in class; motivating students for learning; creating conducive learning environment; and management of learning tasks (Eran?l et al., 2019; Marashi & Assgar, 2019; Yök, 2018). Classroom management also refers to rewarding positive behaviors, preventing negative behaviors, modifying courses, and managing time for effective teaching and learning (Ergin, 2019; Y?ld?z, 2017). Similarly, several scholars also view classroom management as developing rules, regulations, routines, and procedures for daily tasks in class; and establishing an environment conducive to learning (Marashi & Assgar, 2019; Oliver, Wehby & Reschly, 2011; Y?ld?z, 2017).

Classroom management techniques generally put emphasis on modifying students' behaviours and on enhancing their learning experiences. For example, Özyürek (2005) asserted that the focus of classroom management is on modifying behaviors of such students who create hindrance in learning. In well managed classrooms, teachers employ such procedures that help students in developing, maintaining, and managing behaviors to establish a conducive learning environment (Erden, 2008; Y?ld?z, 2017). Likewise, classroom management focuses on developing skills, strategies, and techniques that teachers generally use to keep their students focused, organized, and attentive, and for increasing students’ engagement with learning (Marashi & Assgar, 2019; Özen, & Yildirim, 2020; Yök, 2018). Güleç and Durmus (2019) argued that effective classroom management techniques usually focus on organizing the physical layout of the classroom for ensuring students’ participation and enhancing their learning experiences. Other activities for effective management of classrooms generally focus on establishing physical environment, coping with students’ undesired behaviors, effective time management, following procedures, encouraging students to participate in learning activities, and ensuring that they are benefitting from teaching (Bozku?, 2021; Güleç & Durmus, 2019; Watkins & Wagner, 2000; Y?ld?z, 2017).

A shift has been observed in the concept of classroom management from its initial orientation towards establishing discipline to its orientation towards engaging students with learning. It is evident from the literature that classroom management has traditionally been based upon order and for establishing authority and discipline (Brophy, 2006; Canter, & Canter, 1970; Castolo, 2007; Evertson, & Weinstein, 2006). The literature further reveals that discipline-oriented discourse of classroom management has gone through change over the last few decades, and classroom management has been viewed as the ability to engage students with learning (Bozku?, 2021; Güleç & Durmus, 2019; Marashi & Assgar, 2019; Özsoy, 2003). These orientations of classroom management towards discipline and towards engaging students with learning informs teachers to design and execute techniques for managing their classrooms (Brophy, 2006).

Classroom management techniques with orientations towards discipline are usually focused on preventing students’ undesirable behaviors (Bozku?, 2021; Castolo, 2007; Soodak, 2003). The discipline-oriented techniques put focus on the compliance of pre-defined rules in classrooms (Gordon, 2002). The discipline-oriented classroom management techniques facilitate students’ learning by following the previously defined rules and principles to guide and control students’ behaviours (Bayraktar, & Dogan, 2017; Erden, 2008; Yi?it, 2004). Sieberer-Nagler (2016) also stated that discipline refers to the actions taken by classroom teachers for implementing rules for correcting students’ misbehavior. Wiseman and Hunt (2008) argued that discipline guides students about what they need to do; gives ownership to students for handling problems, and provides guidelines about behavioral expectations.

Classroom management techniques with orientations towards engaging students with learning are focused on cooperation, management of time, space, and resources; completing daily tasks; and establishing roles and behaviors for facilitating students’ learning (Alberto & Troutman, 1986; Marashi & Assgar, 2019). Engagement-oriented classroom management techniques put a focus on creating an environment that supports learning (Soodak, 2003). These techniques are more likely to ensure students’ desired learning outcomes (Gordon, 2002; Güleç & Durmus, 2019; Özsoy, 2003). Engagement-oriented techniques put a focus on the more active participation of students, and that in turn enhances their students' learning (Bozku?, 2021; Eran?l et al., 2019; Soodak, 2003). These management techniques allow teachers to direct the learning styles of their students (Ergin, 2019). These management techniques place emphasis on planning of learning activities, developing cooperation, peer learning, and provision of quality feedback to students to achieve learning (Kalin et al., 2017; Kubat & Dedebali, 2018). Olson (2021) asserted that engagement-oriented classroom management techniques and supportive environment lead to more successful students (Olson, 2021).

The way classroom management techniques are executed by teachers from the perspective of their orientation towards establishing discipline or their orientation towards engaging students may be affected by the way teachers perceive these techniques (Hussain, Javaid, & Raheem, 2020). Teachers being the key variable in a class, what they do for managing their classrooms is a reflection of how they view classroom management from the perspective of its orientation. Teachers usually design their classroom management techniques in alignment with their philosophy and personality (Castolo, 2007). For example, teachers with disciplined-based management perceptions are more likely to focus on rules and regulations; eliminating undesired behaviours through punishment; and controlling students’ behaviors (Bayraktar, & Dogan, 2017; Gordon, 2002; Yalç?nkaya & Küçükkaragöz, 2006). On the other hand, teachers who have classroom management perceptions of engaging students are more likely to focus on creating an environment that facilitates and supports students' learning; use of student-centred approaches; and a focus on the more active participation of students (Bayraktar, & Dogan, 2017; Bozku?, 2021; Eran?l et al., 2019).

The perceptions of teachers about classroom management techniques for their orientation, either towards discipline or towards engaging students with learning, are likely to guide them about the way they manage their classrooms (Hussain et al., 2020). However, not much research work has been conducted to examine the perceptions of school teachers in southern areas of Punjab, Pakistan, about classroom management techniques for their orientation either towards discipline or towards engaging students. Another central question in this regard is to examine the connection between how teachers perceive classroom management techniques and their perceptions about the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning. Examination of gender differences among teachers related to these questions may also provide useful insight in the context of the schools in southern Punjab, Pakistan. The research work is mostly lacking in these context. The main objective of this research is, therefore, to identify the techniques that school teachers perceive as classroom management techniques (along with their orientation) and to examine the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning. This research is further aimed at examining the difference between the teachers' perceptions about classroom management techniques and the effectiveness of those techniques, along with an investigation of gender differences among teachers related to these two questions.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The main objective of this research was to identify the techniques that school teachers perceive as classroom management techniques, along with their orientation, followed by examining their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning. This research is further aimed at examining the difference between the teachers’ perceptions about classroom management techniques and the effectiveness of those techniques, along with examining the gender differences among teachers related to these aspects. This study aimed at addressing the following research questions:

• Which of the techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by school teachers?

• What is the extent of the effectiveness of perceived classroom management techniques for supporting students’ learning?

• Which of the techniques are more perceived as classroom management techniques than the other (whether discipline- or engagement-oriented) by school teachers?

• Which of the perceived classroom management techniques (whether discipline- or engagement-oriented) by school teachers are more effective for supporting students’ learning than the other?

• Is there any difference between perceived classroom management techniques by teachers and the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning?

• Are there any gender differences among school teachers about perceived classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning?

Aligned with research questions, the following sets of null hypotheses were formulated to examine the differences between teachers’ perceptions about classroom management techniques, their effectiveness, orientation of classroom management techniques towards discipline or towards engagement, and the gender differences among teachers related to these aspects.

• Both discipline-oriented engagement-oriented techniques are equally perceived as classroom management techniques by school teachers?

• Both discipline-oriented engagement-oriented classroom management techniques are equally effective for supporting students’ learning as perceived as by school teachers?

• There is no difference between perceived classroom management techniques by teachers and the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning?

• There are no gender differences among school teachers about perceived classroom management techniques?

• There are no gender differences among school teachers about the effectiveness of perceived classroom management techniques for supporting students' learning?

Research Methodology and Procedures

Study Design, Population, and Sample

To identify the techniques that school teachers perceive as classroom management techniques, along with their orientation, and examine their effectiveness for supporting students' learning, this research used a descriptive survey research design. In quantitative survey research designs, investigators employ a survey to the sample or whole population of people for describing their views, opinions, or behaviors (Creswell, 2011). The quantitative survey designs usually employ questionnaires to collect data in numbers, and then analyze data using statistics. This research was delimited to the elementary school teachers in public sector schools of district Dera Ghazi Khan, located in southern Punjab. The district Dera Ghazi Khan comprises four Tehsils, namely, Dera Ghazi Khan, Taunsa, Kot Cohutta, and Koh e Suleman. The total number of Elementary Schools in the district Dera Ghazi Khan are 190 (106 for Boys; 84 for Girls). The total number of teachers in these 190 schools are 1457, and all of these served as the population for this study.

Out of 190 public elementary schools in district Dera Ghazi Khan, 51 were randomly selected as clusters, with representations from all four tehsils. The number of schools selected from each of the tehsil Dera Ghazi Khan, Taunsa, Kot Cohutta, and Koh-e-Suleman were 17, 14, 11, and nine, respectively. Of these 51 elementary schools, 18 were of girls, and 33 were of boys. Finally, all teachers from 51 clusters of schools were selected as sample. The process of sampling ended up in the selection of a total of 406 teachers as a sample. Of these 406 teachers, 128 were female, and 278 were male, all working at public sector elementary schools.




Research Tool

This research employed a questionnaire as a research tool for the collection of data from elementary school teachers to identify the techniques they perceive as classroom management techniques and to examine the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning. The said questionnaire was adopted from Asiyai (2011) and comprised three sections. The first section was designed to seek demographic information of the respondents—the second section of the tool comprised 14 items reflecting different aspects of classroom management techniques. The respondents were first asked to rate the degree to which they perceive these 14 aspects of the managing classrooms as classroom management techniques (on a five-point scale ranging from Not at all [1] to the Definitely [5]), followed by rating the degree to which they perceive those aspects of classroom management effective for students’ learning (on five-point scale ranging from Strongly Disagree [1] to Strongly Agree [5]). Furthermore, these 14 aspects of classroom management were further distributed in two sub-factors. Seven of these aspects reflected classroom management techniques with an orientation towards discipline. The remaining seven aspects were reflecting classroom management techniques with an orientation towards engaging students towards learning. The third section of the tool comprised seven items to seek teachers' opinions about the impact of their classroom management effectiveness on students' learning by rating on a five-point scale ranging from Strongly Disagree [1] to Strongly Agree [5]). The values of Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient for these three sections of the research tool were found to be 0.77, 0.75, and 0.71, respectively, and, therefore, a questionnaire was found to highly reliable for the purpose of data collection.

Data Collection and Data Analysis

The research tool was administered to school teachers both by researchers and through research assistants, who were trained in a session by the researchers. After seeking informed consent from school teachers of 51 randomly selected clusters of elementary schools, a questionnaire was administered to teachers of 17, 14, 11, and nine schools, selected from each of the tehsil Dera Ghazi Khan, Taunsa, Kot Cohutta, and Koh-e-Suleman respectively. The total number of teachers in these 51 elementary schools were 472, and all of them were contacted. Finally, 406 teachers responded to the questionnaire, with a response rate of 86%. Of these 406 teachers, 128 were female, and 278 were male, all working at the public sector elementary schools of district Dera Ghazi Khan. The data were analyzed by calculating the values of mean and standard deviation from descriptive statistics and independent-sample t-test, paired-sample t-test, and the measure of Pearson correlation from inferential statistics.

Results

This section presents results in response to the main objective, research questions, and hypotheses of the research. To identify the extent to which discipline-oriented techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by teachers and to examine the extent of the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning, the values of average scores and standard deviation were calculated, and results are presented in Table 1.




 

Table 1. Disciplined-oriented CMTs and their Effectiveness for Students’ Learning

S. No	Discipline-oriented CMTs (n = 406)	Mean of CMT/Effective		SD of CMT/Effective
		CMT	Effective	CMT	Effective
1	Effective communication	4.26	4.27	0.68	0.63
2	Reinforcement and rewards	4.25	4.23	0.67	0.61
3	Use of behaviour contract	4.30	4.25	0.66	0.71
4	Corporal punishment	3.00	3.07	1.41	1.35
5	Focusing	4.15	4.10	0.67	0.64
6	Relocating the students	3.72	3.68	1.18	1.07
7	Teacher being vigilant	4.16	3.94	0.79	0.82
8	Overall (n = 406)	3.98	3.93	0.87	0.83

 




Table 1 shows that the mean values of five items, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for students’ learning, is greater than 4.00 or nearly 4.00. It shows that teachers highly believe that discipline-oriented aspects of effective communication, use of reinforcement and rewards for positive behaviors, the use of behaviour contract, focusing, and vigilance on the part of teachers can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all of these aspects of discipline-oriented management techniques are effective for supporting students’ learning. Table 1 also shows that the mean value of one item is around 3.7, and the mean value of one item is around 3, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for students' learning. It shows that teachers believe to a good extent that the discipline-oriented aspect of relocating the students can be perceived as a classroom management technique and an effective tool for supporting students’ learning. It further shows that teachers, however, marginally believe that discipline-oriented aspect of corporal punishment can be perceived as a classroom management technique and/or either effective for supporting students’ learning.

An overall mean value of 3.95 and SD less than 1.00 shows that teachers are in agreement and highly believe that discipline-oriented aspects of management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and these aspects are also effective for supporting students’ learning. To identify the extent to which engagement-oriented techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by teachers and to examine the extent of the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning, values of average scores and standard deviation were calculated, and results are presented in Table 2.




 

Table 2. Engagement-oriented CMTs and their Effectiveness

S. No	Engagement-oriented CMTs (n = 406)	Mean of CMT/Effective		SD of CMT/Effective
		CMT	Effective	CMT	Effective
1	Innovative teaching methods	4.39	4.21	0.61	0.69
2	Engaging students in activities	4.28	4.15	0.71	0.73
3	Stimulating class environment	4.33	4.26	0.67	0.69
4	Regular use of questions	4.20	4.19	0.70	0.65
5	Teachers acting as models	4.19	4.05	0.75	0.76
6	Monitoring	3.93	3.69	0.91	1.04
7	Use of humour	4.07	4.10	0.66	0.70
8	Overall (n = 406)	4.20	4.09	0.71	0.75

 




Table 2 shows that the mean values of six items, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for students’ learning, is greater than 4.00. It shows that teachers highly believe that engagement-oriented aspects of innovative teaching methods, engaging students in activities, stimulating classroom environment, regular use of questions, teachers acting as models, and use of humour, can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all these aspects of engagement-oriented management techniques are effective for supporting students’ learning. Table 2 also shows that the mean value of one item is 3.93 in terms of perceptions of this aspect as a classroom management technique and 3.69 in terms of its effectiveness for students’ learning. It shows that teachers highly that engagement-oriented aspect of students’ monitoring can be perceived as a classroom management technique and effective tool for supporting students' learning.

An overall mean value of greater than four and a value of SD less than 1.00 shows that teachers are in agreement and highly believe that all engagement-oriented aspects of the management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all these aspects are also effective for supporting students' learning. Table 3 presents a comparison of the extent to which engagement-oriented and discipline-oriented techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by teachers and examine the extent of the effectiveness of these techniques for supporting students’ learning, along with the presentation of overall results.




 

Table 3. Comparison of CMTs as a Discipline- or Engagement-based and their Effectiveness

S. No	Discipline or engaging CMTs (n = 406)	Mean of CMT/Effective		SD of CMT/Effective
		CMT	Effective	CMT	Effective
1	Discipline-oriented CMTs	3.98	3.93	0.87	0.83
2	Engagement-oriented CMTs	4.20	4.09	0.71	0.75
8	Overall (n = 406)	4.09	4.01	0.79	0.79

 




Table 3 shows that the mean values of engagement-oriented aspects of classroom management techniques, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning (4.20 and 4.01), are slightly greater than of discipline-oriented aspects (3.98 and 3.93). An overall mean value of greater than four and a value of SD less than 1.00 shows that teachers are in agreement and highly believe that both discipline- and engagement-oriented aspects of the management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and both are also effective for supporting students’ learning. Table 3 further shows that teachers, however, believe that engagement-oriented aspects of management can be more perceived as classroom management techniques than discipline-oriented aspects, along with their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning. To examine whether the difference between engagement-oriented or discipline-oriented aspects of management to be perceived as classroom management techniques is significant, and independent-sample t-test was applied, and results are shown in Table 4.




 

Table 4. Difference between Discipline and Engagement-oriented CMTs and their Effectiveness

CMTs and Effectiveness	CMTs	n	Mean	t	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Perceived CMTs	Disciplined-oriented	406	27.83	-8.777	810	.000
	Engagement-oriented	406	29.37	-8.777
Effectiveness of CMTs on students’ learning	Disciplined-oriented	406	27.52	-6.160	810	.000
	Engagement-oriented	406	28.64	-6.160

 




Table 4 shows that the mean value of classroom management techniques with an orientation towards engaging students with learning (29.37) is greater than the mean value of classroom management techniques with an orientation towards discipline (27.83). Likewise, the mean value of the perceived effectiveness of classroom management techniques with orientation towards engaging students with learning (28.64) is greater than the mean value of classroom management techniques with orientation towards discipline (27.52). The p-values of both perceived CMTs and effectiveness of these CMTs for students' learning are less than 0.05, which shows the difference is statistically significant. It can be therefore concluded that engagement-oriented aspects of management are significantly more perceived as classroom management techniques than the discipline-oriented aspects, along with their effectiveness for supporting students' learning. The null hypothesis was rejected. To examine the difference / relationship between perceived classroom management techniques and perceived effectiveness of these techniques for students' learning, paired-sample test and Pearson correlation were applied, and results are shown in Table 5.




 

Table 5. Difference between the Perceived CMTs and their Effectiveness for Students’ Learning

Paired samples	N	Mean	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Perceived CMT	406	57.2167	4.336	405	.000
Effectiveness of CMT	406	56.1724
Correlation	406	.383 (Paired samples; Pearson Correlation)			.000

 




Table 5 shows that the mean value of perceived classroom management techniques (57.22) is greater than the mean value of effectiveness of classroom management techniques (56.17). The p-value of 0.000 is also less than 0.05, which shows that difference between the perceived CMTs and their effectiveness is statistically significant. Likewise, the results of Pearson correlation also found low moderate but statistically significant relationship between perceived CMTs and their effectiveness as the p-value is less than 0.05. The null hypotheses in both stances were thus rejected. Table 6 presents the perceived effects of teachers' classroom management effectiveness on students' learning.




 

Table 6. Perceived Effects of Teachers’ Classroom Management Effectiveness on Learning

S. No	Themes	Mean	SD
1	Effective CM positively enhances students’ learning.	4.29	0.61
2	Effective CM is significantly related with students’ performance.	4.06	0.83
3	Students always do their assignments in a well-managed classroom.	4.17	0.62
4	Effective CM helps in arousing students’ interest in learning.	4.18	0.67
5	Students’ participation is more active in a well-managed classroom.	4.22	0.71
6	Students are more excited to learn if CM is effective.	4.14	0.57
7	The effective CM acts as a motivator for students’ learning.	4.15	0.48
8	Overall (N=356)	4.17	0.64

              Table 6 shows that the mean values of all seven items about the perceived effects of teachers’ classroom management effectiveness on students’ learning are greater than 4.00. It shows that teachers believe that the effects of teachers’ classroom management effectiveness on students’ learning are highly positive. An overall mean value of greater than four and value of SD less than 1.00 shows that school teachers are in agreement and believe that perceived effects of teachers’ classroom management effectiveness on learning are highly positive. Figure 1 shows a graphical presentation of the comparison among the perceived classroom management techniques, their effectiveness (with their orientation towards the discipline of engagement), and perceived effects of teachers' classroom management effectiveness on students' learning.

Results

This section presents results in response to the main objective, research questions, and hypotheses of the research. To identify the extent to which discipline-oriented techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by teachers and to examine the extent of the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning, the values of average scores and standard deviation were calculated, and results are presented in Table 1.




 

Table 1. Disciplined-oriented CMTs and their Effectiveness for Students’ Learning

S. No	Discipline-oriented CMTs (n = 406)	Mean of CMT/Effective		SD of CMT/Effective
		CMT	Effective	CMT	Effective
1	Effective communication	4.26	4.27	0.68	0.63
2	Reinforcement and rewards	4.25	4.23	0.67	0.61
3	Use of behaviour contract	4.30	4.25	0.66	0.71
4	Corporal punishment	3.00	3.07	1.41	1.35
5	Focusing	4.15	4.10	0.67	0.64
6	Relocating the students	3.72	3.68	1.18	1.07
7	Teacher being vigilant	4.16	3.94	0.79	0.82
8	Overall (n = 406)	3.98	3.93	0.87	0.83

 




Table 1 shows that the mean values of five items, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for students’ learning, is greater than 4.00 or nearly 4.00. It shows that teachers highly believe that discipline-oriented aspects of effective communication, use of reinforcement and rewards for positive behaviors, the use of behaviour contract, focusing, and vigilance on the part of teachers can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all of these aspects of discipline-oriented management techniques are effective for supporting students’ learning. Table 1 also shows that the mean value of one item is around 3.7, and the mean value of one item is around 3, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for students' learning. It shows that teachers believe to a good extent that the discipline-oriented aspect of relocating the students can be perceived as a classroom management technique and an effective tool for supporting students’ learning. It further shows that teachers, however, marginally believe that discipline-oriented aspect of corporal punishment can be perceived as a classroom management technique and/or either effective for supporting students’ learning.

An overall mean value of 3.95 and SD less than 1.00 shows that teachers are in agreement and highly believe that discipline-oriented aspects of management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and these aspects are also effective for supporting students’ learning. To identify the extent to which engagement-oriented techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by teachers and to examine the extent of the effectiveness of those techniques for supporting students' learning, values of average scores and standard deviation were calculated, and results are presented in Table 2.




 

Table 2. Engagement-oriented CMTs and their Effectiveness

S. No	Engagement-oriented CMTs (n = 406)	Mean of CMT/Effective		SD of CMT/Effective
		CMT	Effective	CMT	Effective
1	Innovative teaching methods	4.39	4.21	0.61	0.69
2	Engaging students in activities	4.28	4.15	0.71	0.73
3	Stimulating class environment	4.33	4.26	0.67	0.69
4	Regular use of questions	4.20	4.19	0.70	0.65
5	Teachers acting as models	4.19	4.05	0.75	0.76
6	Monitoring	3.93	3.69	0.91	1.04
7	Use of humour	4.07	4.10	0.66	0.70
8	Overall (n = 406)	4.20	4.09	0.71	0.75

 




Table 2 shows that the mean values of six items, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for students’ learning, is greater than 4.00. It shows that teachers highly believe that engagement-oriented aspects of innovative teaching methods, engaging students in activities, stimulating classroom environment, regular use of questions, teachers acting as models, and use of humour, can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all these aspects of engagement-oriented management techniques are effective for supporting students’ learning. Table 2 also shows that the mean value of one item is 3.93 in terms of perceptions of this aspect as a classroom management technique and 3.69 in terms of its effectiveness for students’ learning. It shows that teachers highly that engagement-oriented aspect of students’ monitoring can be perceived as a classroom management technique and effective tool for supporting students' learning.

An overall mean value of greater than four and a value of SD less than 1.00 shows that teachers are in agreement and highly believe that all engagement-oriented aspects of the management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all these aspects are also effective for supporting students' learning. Table 3 presents a comparison of the extent to which engagement-oriented and discipline-oriented techniques are perceived as classroom management techniques by teachers and examine the extent of the effectiveness of these techniques for supporting students’ learning, along with the presentation of overall results.




 

Table 3. Comparison of CMTs as a Discipline- or Engagement-based and their Effectiveness

S. No	Discipline or engaging CMTs (n = 406)	Mean of CMT/Effective		SD of CMT/Effective
		CMT	Effective	CMT	Effective
1	Discipline-oriented CMTs	3.98	3.93	0.87	0.83
2	Engagement-oriented CMTs	4.20	4.09	0.71	0.75
8	Overall (n = 406)	4.09	4.01	0.79	0.79

 




Table 3 shows that the mean values of engagement-oriented aspects of classroom management techniques, both in terms of perceptions of these aspects as classroom management techniques and their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning (4.20 and 4.01), are slightly greater than of discipline-oriented aspects (3.98 and 3.93). An overall mean value of greater than four and a value of SD less than 1.00 shows that teachers are in agreement and highly believe that both discipline- and engagement-oriented aspects of the management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and both are also effective for supporting students’ learning. Table 3 further shows that teachers, however, believe that engagement-oriented aspects of management can be more perceived as classroom management techniques than discipline-oriented aspects, along with their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning. To examine whether the difference between engagement-oriented or discipline-oriented aspects of management to be perceived as classroom management techniques is significant, and independent-sample t-test was applied, and results are shown in Table 4.




 

Table 4. Difference between Discipline and Engagement-oriented CMTs and their Effectiveness

CMTs and Effectiveness	CMTs	n	Mean	t	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Perceived CMTs	Disciplined-oriented	406	27.83	-8.777	810	.000
	Engagement-oriented	406	29.37	-8.777
Effectiveness of CMTs on students’ learning	Disciplined-oriented	406	27.52	-6.160	810	.000
	Engagement-oriented	406	28.64	-6.160

 




Table 4 shows that the mean value of classroom management techniques with an orientation towards engaging students with learning (29.37) is greater than the mean value of classroom management techniques with an orientation towards discipline (27.83). Likewise, the mean value of the perceived effectiveness of classroom management techniques with orientation towards engaging students with learning (28.64) is greater than the mean value of classroom management techniques with orientation towards discipline (27.52). The p-values of both perceived CMTs and effectiveness of these CMTs for students' learning are less than 0.05, which shows the difference is statistically significant. It can be therefore concluded that engagement-oriented aspects of management are significantly more perceived as classroom management techniques than the discipline-oriented aspects, along with their effectiveness for supporting students' learning. The null hypothesis was rejected. To examine the diffe

Figure 1

Comparison of the Disciplined- and Engagement-based CMTs and their Effectiveness for 



Figure 1 shows a graphical presentation of comparison among perceived classroom management techniques, their effectiveness

(with their orientation towards the discipline of engagement), and perceived effects of teachers' classroom management effectiveness on their students' learning. Figure 1 confirm the results of earlier tables and reveal that engagement-oriented aspects of the management (EMCTs, EEMCT) are more perceived as classroom management techniques than discipline-oriented aspects (DCMTs, DECMTs), along with their effectiveness for supporting students' learning. Likewise, the perceived classroom management techniques were rated better than the effectiveness of those techniques. To examine gender-based differences among teachers about the perceived classroom management techniques, an independent sample t-test was applied, and results are shown in Table 7.




 

Table 7. Gender-based Differences among Teachers about the Perceived CMTs

Perceived CMTs	Gender	N	Mean	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Discipline-oriented CMTs	Male	278	27.0313	-4.391	404	.000
	Female	128	28.2086	-4.328
Engagement-oriented CMTs	Male	278	29.2188	-.900	404	.369
	Female	128	29.4532	-.970
Overall CMTs	Male	278	56.2500	-3.064	404	.002
	Female	128	57.6619	-3.161

 




Table 7 shows that mean values of female teachers about the perceived classroom management techniques are greater than male teachers in all three discipline-oriented aspects (28.21>27.03), engagement-oriented aspects (29.45>29.22), and in overall classroom management techniques (57.66>56.25). The p-values in the discipline-oriented aspects (.000) and in overall classroom management techniques (.002) are less than 0.05 but greater than 0.05 in engagement-oriented aspects (.369) of perceived classroom management techniques. It can be, therefore, concluded that discipline-oriented techniques and the overall CMTs are significantly more perceived as classroom management techniques by female than male teachers. It was further concluded that, however, no significant difference exists among male and female teachers about engagement-oriented aspects, and both of them equally perceive these aspects as classroom management techniques. To examine gender differences among teachers about the perceived effectiveness of classroom management techniques, an independent sample t-test was applied, and the results are shown in Table 8.




 

Table 8. Gender-based differences among Teachers about the Perceived Effectiveness of CMTs

Effectiveness of CMTs	Gender	N	Mean	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Discipline-oriented CMTs	Male	278	27.1719	-1.822	404	.069
	Female	128	27.6906	-1.877
Engagement-oriented CMTs	Male	278	28.5625	-.453	404	.651
	Female	128	28.6835	-.536
The overall effectiveness of CMTs	Male	278	55.7344	-1.370	404	.172
	Female	128	56.3741	-1.595

 

Table 8 shows that mean values of female teachers about the perceived effectiveness of classroom management techniques are greater than male teachers in discipline-oriented aspects (27.69> 27.17), in engagement-oriented aspects (28.68>28.56), and in overall classroom management techniques (56.37>55.73). The p-values, however, in discipline-oriented aspects, engagement-oriented aspects, and in the overall effectiveness of classroom management techniques are greater than 0.05. It can be thus concluded that no significant difference exists among the perceptions of male and female teachers about the effectiveness of classroom management techniques, with an orientation towards discipline, engagement, and overall techniques. To examine gender differences among teachers about the effect of perceived classroom management techniques on students’ learning, an independent sample t-test was applied, and the results are shown in Table 9.

 

Table 9. Gender-based Differences among Teachers about the Effectiveness of Perceived CMTs on Students’ Learning

Effectiveness of CMTs	Gender	N	Mean	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Effectiveness of CMTs on students’ learning	Male	278	29.3594	.889	404	.374
	Female	128	29.1439	.897

 




Table 9 shows that the mean value of male teachers about the effect of the perceived classroom management techniques on students’ learning is greater than female teachers (29.36>28.14). The p-value is, however, greater than 0.05. It can be, therefore, concluded that no significant difference exists among perceptions of male and female teachers about the effect of perceived classroom management techniques on supporting students’ learning. The null hypothesis was rejected in this case.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In response to research questions, the following conclusions were drawn from the findings of this study, followed by recommendations where applicable. First, teachers highly believe that most discipline-oriented aspects of the management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and these aspects are also effective for supporting students' learning, except the use of corporal punishment, on which teachers have a bit reservations. Second, teachers highly believe that engagement-oriented aspects of management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and all these aspects are effective for supporting students’ learning. Third, teachers highly believe that although both discipline- and engagement-oriented aspects of management can be perceived as classroom management techniques, and both are also effective for students’ learning, engagement-oriented aspects of the management are significantly more perceived as classroom management techniques than discipline-oriented aspects, with their effectiveness for supporting students’ learning. On the basis of these findings, it is recommended for classroom teachers to design and implement their classroom management techniques by integrating both discipline-oriented and engagement-oriented aspects of management, with a more focus on the latter.

Fourth, it was concluded that discipline-oriented techniques and overall CMTs are significantly more perceived as classroom management techniques by female teachers than male. Fifth, it was concluded that there no significant difference exists among male and female teachers about engagement-oriented aspects, and both groups of school teachers equally perceive these aspects as classroom management techniques. Sixth, it was found that no significant difference exists among perceptions of male and female teachers about the effectiveness of classroom management techniques, with an orientation towards discipline, engagement, and overall techniques. Last, it was concluded that no significant difference exists among perceptions of male and female teachers about the effect of perceived classroom management techniques on supporting students' learning. 

This study has persistently found that no significant difference exists among the perceptions of male and female teachers about the effectiveness of classroom management techniques, with an orientation towards discipline, engagement, and overall techniques. It indicates that both male and female teachers are in agreement about the effectiveness of classroom management techniques with an orientation towards discipline and engaging students with learning. It is thus recommended that teachers are informed and trained about the potential benefits of integration of both aspects of classroom management techniques with an orientation towards discipline and engaging students towards learning. It is further recommended that course guides and teaching and learning activities might be planned in such a way that effective classroom management is promoted right from the beginning and be focused on enhancing students’ learning experiences.

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