Abstract

The word adolescence is used interchangeably with young people. This current research aims to formulate and evaluate an indigenous scale to assess life skills in adolescents. The scale was standardized in multiple phases including the search for relevant constructs and item generation, initial data collection and empirical analysis. Forty-six items were finalized through a committee approach for initial data collection. A sample of the current research was taken from the Peshawar division. Principal Component Analysis with varimax rotation was run. KMO and Bartlet Test of Sphericity were found significant (?2 = 15060, p < .001). 38 items and six different sub-domains were identified. The Social and Emotional Competence Questionnaire (SEC-Q) and Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale confirmed this new scale. (DASS). Validation was verified. Exploratory factor analysis checked factor loadings. Life Skills tool, an adolescent tool, is reliable.

Key Words

Life Skills, Decision Making, Creative & Critical Thinking, Self-awareness, Interpersonal, Coping

Introduction

Life Skills are the adaptation of constructive abilities and optimistic capabilities that make people & individuals especially adolescents face successfully the difficulties and challenges of routine life (World Health Organization, 1997). Life Skills are a set of processes & sequences of self-developmental improvements which consist of personal development that make & grow a person's competences and prospective, build human capital, assist employability, and boost life quality and make possible recognition of ideas, visions and ambitions. World Health Organization (1998) defined "Adolescence" as an age of a person between 10 and 19 years. The words children and adolescents can be used conversely. Adolescents confront many problems like conflicts between children & their parents, uncertain actions and attitude variations. If problems are not determined well, the persons may suffer from role dispersion, whose consequences may be unequal capabilities and needs, aimlessness, improvised psychosomatic tasks at the adolescent stage & maturity and facing many stresses and other social expectations. The anxieties, depressions and social hopes bring insecurity, self-distrust and frustrations to young people/ adolescents. These all happen because young people or adolescents try to face risks as they have the aptitudes to confront risks. Education regarding Life skills can play a vital role in order to support adolescents to cope with all kinds of stresses & other related problems confronting them in routine life (Berk, 2007). 

World Health Organization (1997) created a

periodical regarding life skills education in 1997 for children/adolescents whose ages range from 10 to 19 years in educational institutions, where life skills were termed as promoting psychosocial competence which was defined as an individual capacity to face efficiently with the problems of routine life. In order to retain a state of psychological comfort, it must be a capability of any person to be adaptive in nature and have an optimistic approach whenever intermingling inside a society, societal culture and surroundings. Life skills attainment is a vital fragment of reclamation from unadorned adversity consisting of disappointment to prosper. World Health Organization proposed some core skills comprising decision-making, interactive affiliation abilities, self-recognition, compassion, handling feelings, and managing difficulties of depression & anxiety (World Health Organization, 1997). On the basis of these core skills, Life skills refer to capabilities which a person desires for supporting and elevating his or her life. There is confirmation for the efficacy of a variety of methods in improving life skills in countries like the USA and the UK, where better outcomes had been achieved than in the case of outdated teaching approaches (Errecart et al., 1991; Perry & Kelder, 1992). 

Literature Review

Life Skills are all those skills, aptitudes and positive behaviours that allow young people or individuals to deal successfully with personal, common and cultural challenges especially in the South East Asian countries (World Health Organization, 2001). Adolescence or young age, the age between 10 years and 19 years of any individual is the period of beginning puberty to maturity. In this phase, the adolescent or young individual goes through many stages and changes in shape, mental and responsive changes. For this purpose, young people must have knowledge & understanding of this vital phase and also be prepared for adolescence because during adolescence stage the individual's body grows quickly, in size, in shape, and making some youth go through a stage of comfortability in their body. Along with physical growth, these adolescents also go through hormone modifications & sexual evolution and also make the young people chaotic, weak & self-centred which not only affects adolescents' self-image, and attitude but also their interaction with parents and other people. But, if they are equipped with the knowledge and informed well on time in the early stages regarding the modifications, their psychosomatic responses would be much different from those that have no previous awareness about these pubescent changes (Berk, 2007). 

Life Skills Education comprising of communication skills, confronting social fellows  &  that how to confront and fight against this negativity, forceful skills, and also to understand all the changes which an individual faces while going through these developmental stages of adolescence stage & consciousness of self-identity, having respectable feelings regarding own character, wisdom and create interactions with society members, empathetic about other people especially in case of cultural values by applying artistic thinking of solving any problem, handling & controlling stress, dealing owns rage and making a well-versed decision in each phase of life. These basic skills will help adolescents & young people to confront and solve all kinds of problems which they may face in their own private life, emotionally and during social development (Berk, 2007). Atwater & Duffy (1999) identified that adolescents who are self-assured & self-possessed might handle in a good way all the difficulties they faced during their puberty stage than young people who had no proper knowledge or ideas. Although this stage of adolescence is a period for enjoyment, development and alteration but sometimes these young people distract their vitality from other new activities of smoking, medications, and aggressiveness. Young people/ adolescents experience these things due to multiple systems, such as individual association, household, school and society which are encouraging and influence the changes. Neuroscientists are on the point that during the puberty phase, young people aged between 10 to 19 years pass through vital alterations in brain development (Price, 2007). Social & financial constancy of any household, the childrearing flair, and different kinds of household glitches & fights create stress and other mental belongings in people, especially adolescents. Like these, there are much more ups and downs which cause parent-child fights, perilous behaviours and attitude changes in the adolescent's lifetime. Such circumstances create unnecessary anxiety, rage problems and low self-image which further cause squat educational results & upsetting conduct both in educational institutions and home-based with family (Lahey, 2007). 

Correlates of Life Skills

Depression, Anxiety and Stress

 Young people or adolescents are trapped in childhood and adulthood age and are badly under complex and uncertain situations. These young people or adolescents are aged between 10 to 19 years and their total population makes up 1/5th of the total population of the planet among which almost 80 to 85% of this population lives in the most deprived and developing countries of the world (Hanon et al, 2013).  This age of adolescence which is full of enthusiasm and enjoyment may sometimes take the form of compassion and deep eagerness (Spencer, 2005). But at the same time, many other things like stress, unhappiness, apprehension, & aggression are also confronting and accompanying adolescence (Carter, 2004). In adolescents impaired social associations cause and make them confronted with tension, anxiety and unhappiness; which generates difficulties to establish constructive relationships with others, especially with the family & other peers which confines the effectiveness of these young people and averts from evolving a vigorous character, along with to make them talented with psychological & emotive growth. It is also confirmed from research that tension, anxieties & other hopelessness in Adolescents have an important link with adolescents’ interaction with society, people in society, and academic attainment (Carter, 2004).  

It has been reported that Stress, Anxiety and Depression are found in almost 30 to 75 per cent of children (pre-adolescent) and 25 to 50 per cent in adolescents or young people (Christie et al., 2014). About 10-20% of school-going kids display signs of social abstraction, nervousness, tension, segregation, high compassion and unhappiness. WHO also forecasted that by the year 2020, stress or depression will be one of the key reasons for disability, especially in these young people. Many reports stated that almost 9% of adolescents or young people will go through a phase of depression or anxiety throughout their lives or otherwise they may experience this thing in the later days of their lives (Noble & McGrath, 2005).




Social and Emotional Competence

SEC is a wide-ranging subject which includes a diversity of social and emotional aptitudes or performances (Saarni et al., 2006; Semrud-Clikeman, 2007). Social and Emotional competence is a vital and well-intentioned goal for young people and adolescents' growth for the purpose of recognising implications with positive both short and long-term conclusions (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Knafo-Noam, 2015). In the case of literature, one public methodology was adopted to emphasise the appearance of social and emotional competence like recognizing & classifying a list of skills & capabilities, defined objectives, or performances which considered to be socially and emotionally proficient (Rose, 1997). SEC is determined by means of basic psychosomatic requisite fulfilment, social and emotional independent inspiration, and socially and emotionally capable attitudes. Basically, 03 psychosomatic requirements or pre-requirements exist. Apparent self-sufficiency imitates the sense of being the cause or basis of one's behaviour and that behaviour is associated with one's candid requirements. Competency replicates the logic of being active in one’s deeds and being able to apply personal capabilities. Relatedness replicates the wisdom of being allied to others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). SEC School Model suggests that the basic psychological need required for satisfaction encourages social and emotional independent inspiration, which stimulates these competencies and proficient performances. Socially and emotionally proficient performances sponsor need satisfaction in a continuing cycle. 




The Objective of the Study

The objective of this study is the development and standardization of the Life Skills Scale which measures a person's personality characteristics and cognitive skills. Psychometric evaluation benefits organizations & departments in order to check the suitability of individuals for any job employment/work on the basis of their ability and personality.

Methodology

Sample

The sample for this research was taken from the Peshawar division on the basis of specified criteria.   The sample consisted of 350 (100%) individuals. The sample was selected through a purposive sampling technique. The age of the participants ranges from 14 to 24 years, education ranges from matric to bachelor's degree. Those suffering from major psychiatric disorders, using psychoactive substances and females were not included in the sample. 

Table 1

Demographics of the Participants.



The above table reports the demographics of the research participants including age, education, birth order and living status. 

Demographics	Level	Frequency	Percentage
Age	14-18	171	48.85%
	19-23	179	41.15%
Education	Literate	220	62.85%
	Illiterate	130	37.15%
Birth Order	1st & 2nd	126	36%
	3rd & 4th	161	46%
	5th & 6th	63	18%
Living Status	Joint	346	98.85
	Nuclear	04	01.15

Instruments

Depression Anxiety & Stress Scale (DASS-42)

Dass-42 was used for the assessment of the variable depression anxiety and stress. It is 42 item self-report measuring scale to assess the mentioned variable.  Participants will have to respond to all the items according to their previous week's experience. Response categories of the scale are four ranges from 0-3. 0 for Did not apply to me at all, 1 for Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time, 2 for Applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of the time and 3 for Applied to me very much. All three sub-domains of the scale have 14 items. Cronbach's alpha for the sub-scale of depression is 0.88, for stress 0.86 and for anxiety 0.83 all these values are above the required value showing high internal consistency reliability (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). 




Social & Emotional Competencies Questionnaire (SEC-Q) 

This questionnaire was developed by Izabela Zych and colleagues in 2018. The social & Emotional Competencies Questionnaire contains 16 items. Response categories range from 1-5. 1 is for strongly disagree while 2 is for somewhat disagree. 3 indicates Neither agree nor disagree while 4 for somewhat agree and 5 represents strongly agree. The reliability coefficient of SEC-Q for young adults was 0.87 and for adolescents was 0.80 above the required value (Zych et al, 2018).




Life Skills Scale (LSS)

The life Skills Scale was developed in three steps. Each step of the scale development is explained below. 

Identification of Relevant Domains and Generation of Items 

Initially, a thorough search was done to identify relevant domains of life skills which is necessary for initial item generation. Different research data basis and existing scales were consulted. After searching a pool of fifty items was created and also checked by the supervisor. A committee approach was adopted to check the relevancy of items. Three subject experts checked the items, and four of them were removed according to the committee's suggestions. 46 items were finalized for the factor analysis.  No negative item was created due to the researchers miscoding and careless responses of the participants (Sonderen, Sanderman, and Coyne, 2013). Five-point Likert scale was used to record participants' responses and 2nd they produce reliable results (Khattak, Bhatti & Wazir, 2022; Boone and Boone, 2012). Categories of responses are from 1-5. 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree. High scores on the scale denote high skills while a low score indicates low skills in the individual. 




Data Collection

In this step, data were collected from 350 participants through the newly devised scale containing 46 items. Copy of this scale along with depression anxiety and stress scale (DASS-42) and social & emotional competence questionnaires (SEC-Q) were distributed. The basic aim of the current research is the development of an indigenous Life Skills Scale (LSS).   




Empirical Analysis 

All the collected data including participants' demographics, and responses on all three scales were put into the SPSS data sheet after a thorough check. For the purpose of analysis, SPSS version 24 was used. Various statistical techniques like descriptive statistics, correlation, and exploratory factor analysis were computed. A correlation matrix was created to check convergent and discriminate validity while the alpha reliability coefficient was computed for the establishment of internal consistency.  

Results and Discussion

To establish factorial structure and to check diverse constructs of the Life Skills Scale, an exploratory factor analysis was run by computing principal component analysis through varimax rotation by assuming factor independence contributing to this scale. The value of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was found .91 (above the recommended value of .60 by Kaiser, (1974). Value of the Bartlett?s test of sphericity was also significant (?2 = 15060, p < .001). Six factors are suggested and extracted by the analysis and suggested scree plot (Hassan, et al, 2021). All the remaining items with loading less than .50 on their respective factors were deleted (items 14, 18, 22, 30, 35, 44, 45 & 46). Retained items with values of factor loadings are summarized in below Table 2. Six sub-domains were identified with the title and with the names of contributed 62.84 % of the variance. A brief explanation and elaboration of these sub-domains are given below.  




Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills

This ability is needed for everyone because we are all faced with situations in life, where we have to take some extraordinary steps for our survival. In the mentioned ability or skills, we will have to assess and evaluate the situation with a special focus on possible solution paths (Buch et al, 2021). This ability will polish an individual to choose a possible solution from the available alternatives. This sub-scale of the life skills scale contains 6 items (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6) explaining the variance of 12.90%. The reliability coefficient of this sub-scale was 0.93.   




Critical and Creative Thinking Skills

Reasoning, logic, imaginations, innovation and resourcefulness are the skills that come under critical and creative thinking skills. It involves adolescents thinking broadly & deeply by using the 

mentioned skills. Critical thinking is necessary for adolescents to develop the ability to argumentation, use information necessary for problem-solving and draw reasoned conclusions while creative thinking makes able the adolescents to generate and apply new ideas, identification of alternatives and deal with existing circumstances in a new way (Bergali, 2015). This sub-scale of the life skills scale contains 7 items (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 & 13) explaining the variance of 12.70%. The reliability coefficient of this sub-scale was 0.97.    




Communication and Interpersonal Skills

This skill is the combination of both verbal and nonverbal abilities of adolescents. An adolescent may succeed if found flexible, positive, able of listening actively, able to struggle, easy to adjust in teams and full of empathy (Erozkan, 2013). This sub-scale of the life skills scale contains 6 items (15, 16, 17, 19, 20 & 21) explaining the variance of 10.18%. The reliability coefficient of this sub-scale was 0.92. 







Self-awareness and Empathetic Skills

Self-awareness is the information and knowledge, we have about ourselves not limited to a single entity. We may be aware of our personality, character, feelings, desires, emotions and motivations, while empathetic skill is the adolescent's ability to feel like the other person. Individuals have the ability how people see them and are reported to be more empathetic. Leaders whose self-image equals to self-consciousness of others are acceptable to authorize, embrace, and identify others (Hurley, Linsley, & Stansfield, 2018; Suleman, et al, 2021). This sub-scale of the life skills scale contains 5 items (23, 24, 25, 26 & 27) explaining the variance of 09.74%. The reliability coefficient of this sub-scale was 0.90. 




Coping with Emotions Skills

It is the adolescent's ability to effectively cope and control emotions by utilizing a wide range of skills. The level of this skill varies from person to person. Some are found emotionally more competent while others have a low level of competency (Khattak, Bhati & Wazir, 2022; Salimzadeh, Hall & Saroyan, 2021) but the good thing is that this ability can be improved with time. This sub-scale of the life skills scale contains 6 items (28, 29, 31, 32, 33 & 34) explaining the variance of 09.31%. The reliability coefficient of this sub-scale was 0.88. 




Coping with Stress Skills

Usually, coping skills are those abilities required to tolerate negative events or outcomes while keeping your self-image and emotions in a state of equilibrium. Variations in life are stressful because it needs adjustment and adaptation (Freire et al, 2020). Those stressors which require coping are both acute like shifting to a new city or home, adjustment issues and chronic like some disorders, prolonged financial issues etc. This sub-scale of the life skills scale contains 8 items (36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 & 43) explaining the variance of 08.01%. The reliability coefficient of this sub-scale was 0.94. 

Table 2

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Item	Factor I: Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills	Loadings
05	I value people's help and advice when making important decisions.	.899
03	I find other people's advice helpful in solving problems.	.870
02	I like to consult family members and friends to solve personal problems.	.850
01	In difficult times it is better to follow the advice of others.	.797
04	I don't like depending on friends to solve my problems.	.713
06	I know how to find a way to solve difficult problems.	.684
	Factor II: Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
10	My social relationships are important to me.	.864
11	My religion is important to me.	.863
07	My personal values ??and moral standards are important to me.	.851
09	My height, weight and appearance are important to me.	.826
13	My dreams and thoughts are important to me.	.793
08	My family status is important to me.	.778
12	Relationships with friends are important to me.	.744
	Factor III: Communication and Interpersonal Skills
20	I maintain my relationships with others.	.733
15	Keeping promises to friends is important to me.	.726
16	I communicate easily with people.	.717
17	I choose my words well during a conversation.	.686
19	I write well when needed.	.685
21	I know people by their facial expressions.	.600
	Factor IV: Self-awareness and Empathetic Skills
24	I respect the excellence of others.	.910
26	I feel comfortable talking to people.	.861
25	I use the right words for the occasion.	.763
27	I use my common sense under any pressure.	.741
23	I am confident during a conversation.	.608
	Factor V: Coping with Emotions Skills
31	I like to sleep when I have a problem.	.905
29	I share my negative thoughts and feelings with people.	.891
28	I leave that place during anger.	.598
34	In times of stress, I like to seek feedback from friends.	.583
32	I always set a positive example for myself.	.572
33	I keep trying to solve my problems.	.543
	Factor VI: Coping with Stress Skills
41	I take part in science experiments with interest.	.825
38	I help others in difficult situations.	.818
43	I advise others to get out of trouble.	.811
40	I know how to please myself.	.754
36	I like to talk to get rid of unpleasant feelings.	.748
42	I like to make pictures.	.723
37	I am content despite the lack of finances.	.713
39	I participate in sports.	.703

Table 02: The above table reports exploratory factor analysis results. This is done for checking the dimensionality of the scale by using varimax rotation. Eigenvalues and the final screen plot were used for extraction. Six factors with loading more than .50 were suggested by SPSS and Jamovi. Factor loadings on subscale I, ranging from 0.684 to 0.899. For sub-scale II factor loadings ranges from 0.744 to 0.864. Factor loadings on subscale III range from 0.600 to 0.733. For sub-scale IV factor loadings ranges from 0.608 to 0.910. On the subscale V, factor loadings range from 0.543 to 0.905, while on the sub-scale VI factor loading ranges from .703 to .825.

Reliability Analysis (Correlation Matrix) Table 3



Note: DM_PSS= Decision Making & Problem-Solving Skills, C-CTS= Critical and Creative Thinking Skills, C-IS= Communication and Interpersonal Skills, S-ES= Self-awareness and Empathetic Skills, C-ES= Coping with Emotions Skills, C-SS= Coping with Stress Skills, SEC-Q= Social and Emotional Competence Questionnaire, DASS= Depression Anxiety & Stress ScaleTable 3 reports a correlation matrix of all the sub-scales of the life skills scale, social and emotional competence questionnaire and depression, anxiety and stress scale. Alpha values of all the sub-scales are found above the acceptable range. A positive correlation between the life skills scale and the social and emotional competence questionnaire indicates convergent validity while a negative correlation between the life skills scale and the depression, anxiety and stress scale indicates discriminate validity of the newly developed scale. 

		M	SD	?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1	DM-PSS	19.3	7.74	0.93	-
2	C-CTS	25.5	9.30	0.97	0.205***	-
3	C-IS	21.1	7.23	0.92	0.259***	0.706***	-
4	S-ES	18.9	5.62	0.90	0.321***	0.234***	0.352***	-
5	C-ES	21.3	6.63	0.88	0.225***	0.337***	0.415***	0.154**	-
6	C-SS	27.8	9.39	0.94	0.346***	0.534***	0.524***	0.364***	0.291***	-
7	SEC-Q	60.5	5.04	0.80	0.095	0.035	0.082	0.136*	0.017	0.065	-
8	DASS	24.7	6.07	0.85	-0.012	-0.069	-0.113*	0.017	-0.009	-0.026	0.017	-




Discussion

For the validation of this scale, it was assumed that the Life skills scale is positively correlated with social & emotional competence and adversely correlated with depression anxiety & stress scale. The assumption was checked through different analyses which were carried out. Positive association with social and emotional competence reveals convergent validity while the negative association with DASS reveals discriminate validity. Earlier researchers reported that adolescents and young people can't express their emotions and they face many problems and difficulties in many situations. Life Skills are the skills which give them a way that how to understand emotions and also their importance. Because without understanding the emotions, actions would be ambiguous for them. Elksnin & Elksnin (2007) specified that 93 % of emotional meaning is taken nonverbally, 55 % through facemask appearance, body attitude & signals, and 38% through nature/tone of the voice. So suitable facial expressions, gesticulations, & body language express emotions more efficiently. Along with biological, intellectual, and expressive changes, individuals in the age of adolescence are also confronted with challenges of change in an educational environment. Due to these modifications, adolescents are confronted with different course/ study curricula, newfangled instructors, and new friendships in the school environment and also make to use new school environment. Due to these circumstances, these young people/adolescents adopted undesirable behaviours like bullying, aggressiveness, and damage action & they become sexually dynamic.

Creation & growth of self-esteem in any teenage individual/adolescent is very necessary because researchers are on the point that low self-esteem in adolescents creates many psychological problems which may comprise depression, isolation, exploitation, early age pregnancy, low performance in education and may also involve in criminal activities (Leary, 2005). Decision-making is a determined order of emotional and intellectual procedures that lead to interactive reactions. The absence and deficiency of skills, especially in the case of decision-making, is evidently related to at-risk behaviour (McWhirter, 2007). 

Exploratory factor analysis was carried out to explore sub-domains of the life skills scale. Six sub-domains were identified including Decision Making and Problem-Solving Skills, Critical and Creative Thinking Skills, Communication and Interpersonal Skills, Self-awareness and Empathetic Skills, coping with Emotions Skills and Coping with Stress Skills. 

Life skills are life-managing abilities that are in agreement with evolving jobs of basic social advancement & progression methods of psychosomatic, corporeal, sexual, job-related, mental, ethical, and emotive which needed to be done for a specific age and gender (Powell, 1995). When an adolescent or young people acquire all the elementary skills to confront and manage all kind of challenges, they feel more self-confident, self-assured, inspired, and grow a positive attitude towards their lives which make them more developed and make their responsibilities by taking decisions and converted into more valuable individuals for the next generation. 

Conclusion

It is concluded that Life Skills have a great role in adolescents' & young people’s lives by making them more productive, and skilful and by creating optimistic abilities in them in order to deal with & confronting challenges (World Health Organization, 1997). They may face many problems, undefined actions and disparities in attitudes with their peers, parents and society members as well. If these complications and difficulties were not handled properly, the individuals or adolescents may suffer a lot with character dispersion or damaging personality, which may result in unequal abilities and needs and confronting countless stresses, anxieties and strains which further lead them to uncertainty, self-doubts and hindrances. In such cases, life skills education can show a vibrant role in order to upkeep & support adolescents and young people to manage the challenges of stresses, anxieties and strains which they meet in their day-to-day lives (Berk, 2007). For this purpose, WHO suggested some basic skills consisting of decision-making, social association skills, self-recognition, compassion, handling sentiments, and managing stress, strains & anxieties (World Health Organization, 1997). 

Recommendations

The author of this study is on the point & recommended that such studies regarding the use of life skill scale might construct numerous prospects for related research which may be expanded to comprise adolescents with diverse groups, to get efficacy & usefulness of the scale, by examining the relationship among life skills with other possible measures like assertion, cooperation, and self-control skills.

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