Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students
The research examines the association between hate material exposure and subjective well- being on Twitter using a sample of private and public universities in Lahore. The researcher aims to identify how life happiness & satisfaction are associated with higher exposure to hate material. Data is collected through an online survey (n = 400). The researcher used the theoretical framework of Routine Activity Theory. The findings of the research did not determine any significant relationship between the lower level of subjective well-being and exposure to hate material on Twitter (p > 0.05) because hatred content is easily available and accessible on the Internet and does not require any specific psychological or behavioural situation for having being exposed. Attention is given to the problems which become the cause of sharing hateful content online. The study recommends that SNS should focus more on policies to control hateful content as it is targeting people who result in violent behaviours.
-
(1) Farwa Manzoor
M.Phil. Scholar, School of Media and Communication Studies, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan.
(2) Tanveer Hussain
Assistant Professor, Department of Communication and Media Research, School of Communication Studies, University of Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan.
- Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggressive Behavior, Aggressive Cognition, Aggressive Affect, Physiological Arousal, and Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Scientific Literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467- 9280.00366.
- Awais, M., Ali, F., & Kanwal, A. (2020). Individual-Level Factors and Variation in Exposure to Online Hate Material: A Cross- National Comparison of Four Asian Countries. Journal of Media Studies, 35(2), 127-164.
- Awan, I. (2014). Islamophobia and Twitter: A Typology of Online Hate against Muslims on Social Media. Policy & Internet, 6(2), 133– 150. https://doi.org/10.1002/1944- 2866.poi364
- Banks, J. (2011). European Regulation of Cross- Border Hate Speech in Cyberspace: The Limits of Legislation. European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, 19(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1163/157181711x5539 33.
- Blazak, R. (2009). Toward a working definition of hate groups. Hate crimes, 3(1), 133-162
- Bossler, A. M., Holt, T. J., & May, D. C. (2011). Predicting Online Harassment Victimization Among a Juvenile Population. Youth & Society, 44(4), 500–523. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x114075 25.
- Bowman-Grieve, L. (2009). Exploring “Stormfrontâ€: A Virtual Community of the Radical Right. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 32(11), 989–1007. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100903259 951.
- Brown, C. (2009). WWW.HATE.COM: White Supremacist Discourse on the Internet and the Construction of Whiteness Ideology. Howard Journal of Communications, 20(2), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646170902869 544
- Brown, J. D., & Bobkowski, P. S. (2011). Older and Newer Media: Patterns of Use and Effects on Adolescents’ Health and Well-Being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532- 7795.2010.00717.x.
- Brusilovskiy, E., Townley, G., Snethen, G., & Salzer, M. S. (2016). Social media use, community participation and psychological well-being among individuals with serious mental illnesses. Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.036
- Castaño-PulgarÃn, S. A., Suárez-Betancur, N., Vega, L. M. T., & López, H. M. H. (2021). Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 58, 101608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.10160 8.
- Chou, H.-T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They Are Happier and Having Better Lives than I Amâ€: The Impact of Using Facebook on Perceptions of Others’ Lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0324.Chou, H.-T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They Are Happier and Having Better Lives than I Amâ€: The Impact of Using Facebook on Perceptions of Others’ Lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0324.
- Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: a Routine Activity Approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2094589
- Costello, M., Hawdon, J., & Ratliff, T. N. (2016). Confronting online extremism: The effect of self-help, collective efficacy, and guardianship on being a target for hate speech. Social Science Computer Review, 35(5), 587–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/08944393166662 72.
- Costello, M., Hawdon, J., Ratliff, T., & Grantham, T. (2016). Who views online extremism? Individual attributes leading to exposure. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.033
- Costello, M., Restifo, S. J., & Hawdon, J. (2021). Viewing anti-immigrant hate online: An application of routine activity and Social Structure-Social Learning Theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 124, 106927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.10692 7.
- Demir, M., & Özdemir, M. (2009). Friendship, Need Satisfaction and Happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(2), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9138- 5.
- Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of personality assessment, 49(1), 71-75.
- Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- 2909.125.2.276.
- Douglas, K. M., Mcgarty, C., Bliuc, A.-M., & Lala, G. (2005). Understanding cyberhate: Social competition and social creativity in online white supremacist groups. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/08944393042715 38.
- Dowd, N. E., Singer, D. G., & Wilson, R. F. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of children, culture, and violence. Sage.
- Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The Benefits of Facebook “Friends:†Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143– 1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083- 6101.2007.00367.x.
- Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.06. 008
- Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Polyvictimization and trauma in a national longitudinal cohort. Development and Psychopathology, 19(01). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579407070 083.
- Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Re-victimization patterns in a national longitudinal sample of children and youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(5), 479– 502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.03. 012.
- Foxman, A. H., & Wolf, C. (2013). Viral hate: Containing its spread on the Internet. Macmillan.
- Gerstenfeld, P. B., Grant, D. R., & Chiang, C.-P. (2003). Hate Online: A Content Analysis of Extremist Internet Sites. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530- 2415.2003.00013.x.
- Glaser, J., Dixit, J., & Green, D. P. (2002). Studying Hate Crime with the Internet: What Makes Racists Advocate Racial Violence? Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540- 4560.00255
- Grieve, R., Indian, M., Witteveen, K., Anne Tolan, G., & Marrington, J. (2013). Face-to-face or Facebook: Can social connectedness be derived online? Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 604–609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.017
- Harriman, N., Shortland, N., Su, M., Cote, T., Testa, M. A., & Savoia, E. (2020). Youth Exposure to Hate in the Online Space: An Exploratory Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8531. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228531.
- Hawdon, J. (2012). Applying differential association theory to online hate groups: A theoretical statement. Research on Finnish Society, 5, 39-47
- Hawdon, J., Bernatzky, C., & Costello, M. (2018). Cyber-Routines, Political Attitudes, and Exposure to Violence-Advocating Online Extremism. Social Forces, 98(1), 329–354. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy115.
- Hawdon, J., Oksanen, A., & Räsänen, P. (2014). Victims of Hate Groups: American Youth’s Exposure to Online Hate Speech. In The causes and consequences of group violence: From bullies to terrorists (pp. 165-182).
- Hawdon, J., Oksanen, A., & Räsänen, P. (2016). Exposure to Online Hate in Four Nations: A Cross-National Consideration. Deviant Behavior, 38(3), 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1 196985.
- Helweg-Larsen, K., Schütt, N., & Larsen, H. B. (2012). Predictors and protective factors for adolescent Internet victimization: results from a 2008 nationwide Danish youth survey. Acta Paediatrica, 101(5), 533–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651- 2227.2011.02587.x
- Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29(2), 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457 816.
- Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 14(3), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2010.4 94133.
- Holt, T. J., & Bossler, A. M. (2008). Examining the Applicability of Lifestyle-Routine Activities Theory for Cybercrime Victimization. Deviant Behavior, 30(1), 1– 25. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701876 577.
- Keipi, T., Räsänen, P., Oksanen, A., Hawdon, J., & Näsi, M. (2018). Exposure to online hate material and subjective well-being: A comparative study of American and Finnish youth. Online Information Review.
- Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 62(2), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066x.62.2.95.
- Keyes, C. L., & Haidt, J. (Eds.). (2003). Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp. 275-289). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Kiilakoski, T., & Oksanen, A. (2011). Soundtrack of the school shootings: Cultural script, music and male rage. YOUNG, 19(3), 247– 269. https://doi.org/10.1177/11033088110190 0301.
- Krasnova, H., Wenninger, H., Widjaja, T., & Buxmann, P. (2013). Envy on Facebook: a hidden threat to users’ life satisfaction?.
- LEE, E., & LEETS, L. (2002). Persuasive Storytelling by Hate Groups Online. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(6), 927–957. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642020450 06003.
- Leets, L., & Giles, H. (1997). Words as weapons: When do they wound? Investigations of racist speech. Human Communication Research, 24, 260-301.
- Liu, P., Tov, W., Kosinski, M., Stillwell, D. J., & Qiu, L. (2015). Do Facebook Status Updates Reflect Subjective Well- Being? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(7), 373–379. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2015.0022.
- Livingstone, S. (2009). Children and the internet. Cambridge: Polity
- Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2010). Balancing opportunities and risks in teenagers’ use of the internet: the role of online skills and internet self-efficacy. New Media & Society, 12(2), 309–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448093426 97.
- Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., Go¨rzig, A., & O´ lafsson, K. (2011). Risks and safety on the Internet: The perspective of European children. Full findings of the EU kids online. London: LSE.
- Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social indicators research, 46(2), 137-155.
- Maitra, I., & McGowan, M. K. (Eds.). (2012). Speech and harm: Controversies over free speech. Oxford University Press
- Marcum, C. D. (2008). Identifying potential factors of adolescent online victimization for high school seniors. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2, 346-367.
- Marcum, C. D., Higgins, G. E., & Ricketts, M. L. (2010). Potential factors of online victimization of youth: An examination of adolescent online behaviours utilizing routine activity theory. Deviant Behavior, 31, 381-410.
- McNamee, L. G., Peterson, B. L., & Peña, J. (2010). A Call to Educate, Participate, Invoke and Indict: Understanding the Communication of Online Hate Groups. Communication Monographs, 77(2), 257–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751003758 227.
- Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., Wolak, J., Ybarra, M. L., & Turner, H. (2011). Youth Internet Victimization in a Broader Victimization Context. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010. 06.009.
- Mitchell, K. J., Ybarra, M., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). The Relative Importance of Online Victimization in Understanding Depression, Delinquency, and Substance Use. Child Maltreatment, 12(4), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595073059 96
- Mutz, D. C. (2002). The Consequences of Cross- Cutting Networks for Political Participation. American Journal of Political Science, 46(4), 838–855. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088437.
- Nabi, R. L., Prestin, A., & So, J. (2013). Facebook Friends with (Health) Benefits? Exploring Social Network Site Use and Perceptions of Social Support, Stress, and Well- Being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(10), 721–727. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0521.
- Näsi, M., Räsänen, P., Oksanen, A., Hawdon, J., Keipi, T., & Holkeri, E. (2014). Association between online harassment and exposure to harmful online content: A cross-national comparison between the United States and Finland. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.09.019 .
- Oh, H. J., Ozkaya, E., & LaRose, R. (2014). How does online social networking enhance life satisfaction? The relationships among online supportive interaction, affect, perceived social support, sense of community, and life satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.053 .
- Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2001). Goals, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(12), 1674– 1682. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672012712 010
- Oksanen, A., & Keipi, T. (2013). Young people as victims of crime on the internet: A population-based study in Finland. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 8(4), 298–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2012.7 52119.
- Oksanen, A., Hawdon, J., Holkeri, E., Näsi, M., & Räsänen, P. (2014). Exposure to online hate among young social media users. In Soul of society: a focus on the lives of children & youth. Emerald Group Publishing Limited
- Pontin, E., Schwannauer, M., Tai, S., & Kinderman, P. (2013). A UK validation of a general measure of subjective well-being: the modified BBC subjective well-being scale (BBC-SWB). Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 11(1), 150. . https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-11- 150
- Potok, M. (2015). The year in hate and extremism. Intelligence report (spring issue). https://www.splcenter.org/fighting- hate/intelligence-report/2015/year-hate- and-extremism-0.
- Pratt, T. C., Holtfreter, K., & Reisig, M. D. (2010). Routine Online Activity and Internet Fraud Targeting: Extending the Generality of Routine Activity Theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47(3), 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224278103659 03
- Reichelmann, A., Hawdon, J., Costello, M., Ryan, J., Blaya, C., Llorent, V., Oksanen, A., Räsänen, P., & Zych, I. (2020). Hate Knows No Boundaries: Online Hate in Six Nations. Deviant Behavior, 42(9), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1 722337
- Reyns, B. W. (2011). Online routines and identity theft victimization: Further expanding routine activity theory beyond direct-contact offenses. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(2), 216–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224278114255 39.
- Reyns, B. W., Burek, M. W., Henson, B., & Fisher, B. S. (2011). The unintended consequences of digital technology: exploring the relationship between sexting and cybervictimization. Journal of Crime and Justice, 36(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648x.2011.6 41816.
- Reyns, B. W., Henson, B., & Fisher, B. S. (2011). Being pursued online: Applying cyberlife tyle–routine activities theory to cyberstalking victimization. Criminal justice and behavior, 38(11), 1149-1169. Satici, S. A., & Uysal, R. (2015). Well-being and problematic Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 185–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.005 .
- Schiffrin, H. H., & Nelson, S. K. (2008). Stressed and Happy? Investigating the Relationship Between Happiness and Perceived Stress. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902- 008-9104-7.
- Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1 437466
- Seligman, M. E., Parks, A. C., & Steen, T. (2004). A balanced psychology and a full life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1379-1381
- Silva, L., Mondal, M., Correa, D., Benevenuto, F., & Weber, I. (2016, March). Analyzing the targets of hate in online social media. In Tenth international AAAI conference on web and social media.
- Söderström, S. (2009). Offline social ties and online use of computers: A study of disabled youth and their use of ICT advances. New Media & Society, 11(5), 709–727. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448091053 47.
- Stahl, C., & Fritz, N. (2002). Internet safety: adolescents’ self-report. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(1), 7–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1054- 139x(02)00369-5
- Tynes, B. (2005). Children, adolescents and the culture of online hate. Handbook of children, culture and violence, 267-289.
- Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009). Is There Social Capital in a Social Network Site?: Facebook Use and College Students’ Life Satisfaction, Trust, and Participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 875–901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083- 6101.2009.01474.x.
- Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. P. (2006). Friend networking sites and their relationship to adolescents’ well-being and social self-esteem. Cyberpsychology & Behavior : The Impact of the Internet, Multimedia and Virtual Reality on Behavior and Society, 9(5), 584–590. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.584.
- van Wilsem, J. (2011). Worlds tied together? Online and non-domestic routine activities and their impact on digital and traditional threat victimization. European Journal of Criminology, 8(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/14773708103931 56.
- Waldron, J. (2012). The harm in the hate speech. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
- Wells, M., & Mitchell, K. J. (2008). How Do High- Risk Youth Use the Internet? Characteristics and Implications for Prevention. Child Maltreatment, 13(3), 227–234. . https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595073129 62
- Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2007). Prevalence and Frequency of Internet Harassment Instigation: Implications for Adolescent Health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(2), 189–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007. 03.005.
- Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2008). How Risky Are Social Networking Sites? A Comparison of Places Online Where Youth Sexual Solicitation and Harassment Occurs. PEDIATRICS, 121(2), e350–e357. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-0693.
- Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., & Korchmaros, J. D. (2011). National Trends in Exposure to and Experiences of Violence on the Internet Among Children. PEDIATRICS, 128(6), e1376–e1386. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0118.
Cite this article
-
APA : Manzoor, F., & Hussain, T. (2023). Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students. Global Social Sciences Review, VIII(II), 26-41. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2023(VIII-II).03
-
CHICAGO : Manzoor, Farwa, and Tanveer Hussain. 2023. "Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students." Global Social Sciences Review, VIII (II): 26-41 doi: 10.31703/gssr.2023(VIII-II).03
-
HARVARD : MANZOOR, F. & HUSSAIN, T. 2023. Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students. Global Social Sciences Review, VIII, 26-41.
-
MHRA : Manzoor, Farwa, and Tanveer Hussain. 2023. "Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students." Global Social Sciences Review, VIII: 26-41
-
MLA : Manzoor, Farwa, and Tanveer Hussain. "Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students." Global Social Sciences Review, VIII.II (2023): 26-41 Print.
-
OXFORD : Manzoor, Farwa and Hussain, Tanveer (2023), "Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students", Global Social Sciences Review, VIII (II), 26-41
-
TURABIAN : Manzoor, Farwa, and Tanveer Hussain. "Role of Individual's Subjective Well-Being in Exposure to Hate Material on Twitter; An Analysis of Lahore-Based University Students." Global Social Sciences Review VIII, no. II (2023): 26-41. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2023(VIII-II).03