Abstract

This study examined the relationship between identity formation and self/interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. A sample of 323 refugees aged 18–29 years was selected through cluster sampling from organizations including SHARP, Handicap International (HI), International Medical Corps (IMC), and UNHCR in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Identity formation was assessed using the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS), while self and interpersonal functioning was measured through the Self and Interpersonal Functioning Scale (SIFS). Data analyzed using descriptive, correlational, t-test, and regression methods. Results revealed a significant negative correlation between identity formation and self/interpersonal functioning (r = ?.421, p < .001). Ruminative exploration positively predicted poorer self and interpersonal functioning, whereas positive identity development significantly predicted better functioning (p < .001). Significant gender differences were observed in identity development (p< .001), but not in self/interpersonal functioning. Findings highlight the psychological impact of displacement, trauma, and forced migration on refugee wellbeing and adjustment.

Keywords

Identity Formation, Ruminative Identity, Commitment Making, Exploration in Breadth, Identification with Commitment, Exploration in Depth, Self and Interpersonal Functioning, Afghan Refugees

Introduction

One of the largest humanitarian crisis worldwide is the resettlement of refugees after forced migration. According to a UNHCR report more than 6.1 million Afghan refugees are resettled, with Iran and Pakistan hosting majority. Women and children make up more than half of the displaced population viewed as vulnerable. About 1.2 million refugees resettled in Pakistan are deported back in between 2023-2025 among which 3150,000 refugees were deported in 2025 alone. This reflects the disturbance of personal development, self and interpersonal functioning among refugees resettled in Pakistan. According to UNHCR (1998) displacement and forced migration are interconnected in which the former refers to the loss of habitual residence due to persecution, violence and armed conflict and latter means compulsory movement of people without voluntary consent. Both the aspect from different researches indicates that 60-70% use adaptive techniques like problem-solving and positive reframing and the rest of 30-40% use self-blame, avoidance and ruminations as maladaptive techniques and this forced migration, reintegration and displacement challenges affect a person in many ways, including their identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning (UNHCR, 2025).

Identity Formation

Identity formation is a complex process that influences how a person perceive themselves and their place in the world (Erikson, 1968; Schwartz, 2001). Erik Erikson (1968) have explored the process of identity formation through a series of developmental stages. According to him adolescence is a crucial phase during which individuals face the identity crisis as they struggle to develop a unique sense of self .Culture also plays a vital role by providing individuals with social standards and expectations, customs and beliefs that inform their self- awareness (Vignoles et al., 2021). Many factors influence the process of identity development. Some of them are discussed here.

Social Factors 

Identity development is a dynamic process effected by  cultural impacts and social interaction (Phinney, 1990). The process of social integration has an impact on personal development as being in the host community refugees feel connected, understood and accepted (UNHCR, 2024). Cultural and social factors significantly contribute to self-exploration as interaction with diverse worldviews and cultural practices expands one’s self-concept and fosters a deeper sense of belonging (Yang & Fatiam, 2023).

Psychological Factors

Multiple psychological factors like insecurity or struggles with self-perception can create a block in the healthy development of self-identity. Self-recognition and personal growth can be impaired due to a person facing emotional and psychological challenges such as low self-regard and traumatic past experiences  (Schwartz et al., 2011). Luyckx and colleagues in a 2013 study found out that ruminative exploration is particularly associated to anxiety, impaired functioning, depression and maladaptive adjustment. These leads to poor self and interpersonal functioning.  In one of the study by Murtaza et al., (2024) acculturation stress is said to trigger identity crisis among both men and women revealing confusion about sense of self with 70% participants on whole. Women often confront the need to redefine gender expectations in new cultural environment whereas men experiences traditional breadwinner roles as a challenge. Also in one of the study by Ritchie et al., (2013) worked on identity dimensions and functioning and as a result found out that ruminative exploration is linked with maladjustment, whereas commitment predicts more optimal self-functioning.

Self and interpersonal functioning

Self and interpersonal functioning are crucial aspects of psychological health and personality development. The Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD) derived from DSM-V stresses upon personality functioning. In this model, self and interpersonal functioning are two core dimensions. Self –functioning includes an individual’s capacity for personal exploration, emotional regulation, self-reflection, and independence. This affects how a person interprets their thoughts, emotions and behaviors. (American Psychiatric Association, [APA], 2013). Early life experiences, cultural context, mental health status, and the presence or absence of supportive social ties play a crucial role in shaping self and interpersonal functioning (Schmeck et al., 2013).  Self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees are deeply affected by the trauma of displacement and the ongoing process of adapting to unfamiliar environments. Forced migration often disrupts one’s sense of identity, leaving individuals uncertain about their cultural belonging and personal values (APA, 2013). Afghan refugees repeatedly exhibits difficulties in emotional regulation which is a core aspect of self-functioning, due to exposure to trauma including family separation, forced displacement and war-related violence. They face many difficulties as a result of impairment in emotional regulation such as somatic complaints, anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress. This in turn affect social involvement and interpersonal relationships (Silove et at., 2017). Both male and female refugees experience confusion, attributing mistrust, isolation and impaired social functioning over the social roles that are changed (Kantor et al., 2023).

Rationale of the study

Previous literature on Afghan refugees  highlights how displacement has influenced their lives, in shaping their personalities and  the way they respond and cope with challenges in war-effected environments. Previous research has identified that identity formation, coping mechanisms, self and interpersonal functioning are impacted by displacement. However, the existing studies often treats the topics of identity development, coping mechanism and self and interpersonal functioning as separate, which fails to capture the full picture. (Alemi et al., 2023). This segmented approach fails to capture the links between psychological processes and how they shape one another. Although both genders are influenced due to trauma and displacement with the same magnitude but still gender specific differences are often ignored despite evidence suggesting that men and women respond to trauma, adaptation, and displacement in distinct ways ( Khan et al., 2024). Afghan women face certain challenges including limited access to education, restricted mobility, and social exclusion all that significantly affect their coping mechanism and personal exploration (UN Women, 2025). Afghan refugees struggle with unresolved identity struggles due to many of them facing war and persecution (Rehman et al., 2023). These issues hinder their ability to integrate  in new environments. Although studies from western contexts have offered valuable insights, they often fail to reflect cultural and social realities of Afghan refugees resettled in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2024). Given Pakistan’s role in hosting Afghan refugees for more than 40 years, it serves as an important setting for research that has both cultural nuance and local realities. This study aims to fill these gaps by looking at how identity, coping, and psychosocial functioning are connected, and how these connections differ between men and women. This study also hopes to give mental health professionals and policymakers the tools they need to create inclusive and gender-sensitive interventions that support both emotional well-being and social belonging (Alemi et al., 2023; Ahmed & Sabir, 2024).

Objectives

1. To assess the effect of identity formation on self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees.
2. To examine the effect of ruminative exploration on self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees.
3. To analyze the relationship between identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees.
4. To analyze gender differences in identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis of this study are as follows:

1. Identity formation (Ruminative exploration) will positively predict impaired self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees.
2. Commitment making, identification with commitment, exploration in breadth and exploration in depth will negatively predict impaired self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees.
3. There will be association between identity formations, self and interpersonal functioning.
4. There will be gender differences between male and female in-terms of identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning.

Methodology

Sample

The study population consist of 3900 Afghan refugees (N= 3900) whom were affiliated with four different organizations. The included participants of both genders with age range between 18-29 (M=2.46, SD=1.12) years. The study used cluster sampling technique 20% of each organization’s sample was approximately (n=780) including 240, 40, 300 and  200  respectively.

Inclusion

• The study includes individuals ranging from 18-29 years so there will be variation in terms of age among participants.
• The study includes Afghan nationals with refugee status or asylum-seeking status in Pakistan identified as male or female representing.
• The sample reflects a range of socioeconomic backgrounds ( low, middle and upper as self-reported or per organizational assessment)
• Those who are willing to provide informed consent and participate voluntarily are included in the study.

Exclusion

• Individuals with severe cognitive impairment or psychiatric conditions that may hinder consent or voluntary participation.
• Those individuals who are involved in any kind of substance abuse are excluded.
• Those individuals currently involved in other similar intervention studies are excluded.
• Moreover, individuals below age 18 years and above 29 years old are excluded.

Instrument

Demographic Sheet

First the participants were given a demographic information sheet to fill in their basic information like their name, age, gender, level of education and socioeconomic status. The most crucial aspect is participant’s age and gender for this study.

Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS)

This scale (Luyckx et al, 2008) assesses five key processes of identity development in adolescents and young adults. The scale includes 25 items in total with 5 subscales namely commitment making, identification with commitment, exploration in breadth, exploration in depth and ruminative exploration. It is a 5-point Likert scale and the score range between of 1 which means strongly disagree to 5 which means strongly agree. Moreover, high score on scale indicates active identity engagement whereas low score indicates identity confusion or dissatisfaction. The scale has good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha values typically ranging from .70 to .85 across subscales.

Self and Interpersonal Functioning Scale (SIFS)

The SIFS (Dminick et al., 2017) to assess criterion A of the DSM V Alternative Model for Personality Disorders. It focuses on impairments in personality functioning. The scale consists of 24 items with 4 subscales. The subscales are named identity, self-direction, empathy and intimacy. It is a 5-point Likert scale. The score of 1 means “strongly disagree” with a 5 means “strongly agree”. Moreover, high score indicates greater impairment in personality functioning whereas, the low score indicates better functioning. The reliability of the scale is (Cronbach’s alpha values for the subscale range) from .78 to .86, with the total scale showing strong internal consistency (? ? .85-.90).

Procedure

Permission to collect data was obtained from the relevant authorities before data collection. Data was collected in informal settings and participants were approached individually. The data collection for this study included both paper pencil method and online questionnaires using Google Forms. Cluster sampling technique was used for recruiting participants who mainly belonged to four different organizations: UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), SHARP (Society for Human Rights and Prisoners Aid), IMC (International Medical Corps) and HI (Handicap International) with the sample size of 240, 300, 200 and 40 from each organization respectively. Participants were approached in organization offices, camps and communities overlooked by these organizations.

The participants were briefed about the purpose of the study, ensuring they had a clear understanding of the objectives of the study. After, they were ensured that their responses would be anonymous and would be kept confidential. Moreover, they could withdraw from the study anytime they wanted. Consent was obtained via a digital acknowledgment form in case of online questionnaires. In case of paper pencil form, written consent was obtained along with the demographic sheet.

After they filled in their basic demographic information including age, gender, education and socioeconomic status, they completed the study questionnaires. Before analyzing the data, it was ensured that all the forms are appropriately filled. Inappropriately filled and incomplete forms were discarded. The selected data was then analyzed through data analysis software SPSS version 2026.

Results

The results are in the form of tables along with interpretation of each table.

Table 1

Sociodemographic Characteristics of Participants (N=323)

Baseline Characteristics	N	%
Age
18-20	87	26%
21-23	77	23%
24-26	83	25%
27-29	76	23%
Gender
Male	177	54%
Female	146	45%
Education
Uneducated	104	32%
Educated	219	67%
Socioeconomic status
Upper	29	9%
Middle	149	46%
Lower	144	44%

Note: Out of 390 Afghan Refugees 323 participants completed their survey.

Table 1 shows the demographics characteristics of participants like age which includes a range of 18-20, 21-23, 24-26 and 27-29 respectively. 

Table 2

Psychometric properties for Self and Interpersonal Functioning Scale, Dimensions of Identity Development and Cognitive Emotional Regulation Questionnaire(N=323)

Scale	M	SD	Range	Cronbach ?
SIF	44.30	13.17	4-47	.76
DID	80.15	19.46	28-125	.90

Note: SIF= Self and Interpersonal Functioning, DID= Dimensions of Identity Development

Table no 2 shows psychometric properties of the scales used in the present study reflecting .76 Cronbach ? for self and Interpersonal Functioning Scale, Cronbach ? of .90 for Dimensions of Identity Development and This table also shows mean, standard deviation and range of the two scales respectively.

Table 3

Regression Coefficient of Ruminative Exploration on Self and Interpersonal Functioning (N=323)

Variable	B	?	SE
Constant	30.28***		2.04
did r.e	.82***	.37	.11
R2	.14

Note: constant = SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning), did. r.e = Dimensions of Identity Development, Ruminative exploration ***P<.001 Higher score indicates impaired self-functioning.

Table 3 shows the impact of did r.e (dimensions of identity development, ruminative exploration) on SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning among Afghan refugees. The R² value of .14 reveal that the predictor variable explained 14% variance in the outcome variable with F (1,321) = 52.73, p<.001. The finding reveal that high ruminative exploration will positively predict impaired self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. 

Table 4

Regression Coefficient of Dimensions of Identity Development on Self and Interpersonal Functioning(N=323)

Variables	B	Standard Error	T	p	Confidence interval c.i (95%) Upper                        Lower
Constant	62.18	2.163	28.74	.001	57.92	66.43
did c.m	- .84	.17	- 4.76	.001	- 1.18	- .49
did e.b	- 2.84	.16	- 1.71	.001	- .61	- .04
did i.c	- .07	.21	- .35	.01	- .03	- .47
did e.d	- .05	-18	- .26	.01	- .41	- .37

Note: constant= SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning), did c.m = dimensions of Identity development, commitment making, did e.b= exploration in breadth, did i.c= identification with commitment, did e.d= exploration in depth.

***p<.001, **p<.01

Table 4 shows the impact of did (dimensions of identity development) on SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning) among Afghan refugees. The R² value of .24 reveal that predictor explained 24% variance in the outcome variable with F (4,318) =25.64, p<.001. The finding reveal that did. c.m  (?=-.84, p<.001), did e.b (?=-.28, p<.001), did. i.c (?=-.07, p<.01), did. e. d (?=-.05, p<.01) predicted negative  impaired SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning) among Afghan refugees.

Table 5

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation for Self and Interpersonal Functioning and Dimensions of Identity Development(N=323)

Variables	N	Mean	SD	1	2	3
SIF	323	44.30	13.17	-.421***	-
Did	323	80.15	19.46	.451***	.369***	-

Note:  SIF= Self and Interpersonal Functioning, did= Dimensions of identity development

        ***p< .001

Table 5 shows a significant  negative correlation between SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning Scale) and did (Dimensions of Identity development Scale).

Table 6

Mean Differences, Standard Deviation, t-value of Self and Interpersonal Functioning, Dimensions of Identity Development (N=323)

	Male          (177)      M         SD		Female          (146)     M          SD		t(321)	p	Hedges               g
SIF	44.16	15.35	44.47	9.96	-.208	P > .83	0.02
did. Tot	81.49	21.47	78.53	16.63	1.35	p<.001	0.15

Note:  SIF= (Self and Interpersonal Functioning), did. tot (Dimensions of Identity Development),

***P<.001, P>.05

Table 6 indicates independent sample t test to assess the gender differences on SIF (Self and Interpersonal Functioning). Results reveal that male (M=44.16, SD=15.35), t (321) =-.208: p>.005 than females (M=44.47, SD=9.96), p>.005, hedges g=.02(smaller effect size). In the same way gender differences on did (dimensions of Identity Development) results reveal that male (M=18.49, SD=21.47) t (321) =1.35, p<.001 than females (M=78.53, SD=16.63), p<.001, hedges g=0.15(smaller effect size).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the relationships among identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. The study focused on how identity formation and self and interpersonal functioning are disrupted due to displacement and forced migration. For the purpose of this study, Afghan refugees (N=323) aged between 18-29 years were selected from four different organizations.

One objective of this study was to assess the effect of disrupted identity formation (ruminative exploration) on self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. The study found out that identity formation (ruminative exploration) will positively predict impaired self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. The findings align with existing literature. Koch (2019) examined disruption in emotion regulation among Afghan refugees exposed to trauma and revealed that deficits in emotional regulation significantly predicted anxiety, depressive symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder. So it supports the idea that poor emotional regulation and repetitive negative thoughts are detrimental to both interpersonal and intrapersonal functioning. In the same way Kantor et al. (2023) identified that subjective functional impairment and interpersonal stressors along with psychological difficulties are the major aspects in daily life problems. Moreover, they found out that ongoing negative thought patterns and internal distress impact daily functioning.

Another objective of this present study was to examine effect of positive identity formation on self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. The results of the current study indicate that identity formation is negatively related to self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. Ghadiri in his 2024 study examined identification with commitment and commitment making and found out that they were negatively linked with behavioral problems (showing higher commitments associated with fewer problems) and positive maladaptive links were found due to ruminative exploration. A cross sectional study by Smith and colleagues in 2023 on identity statuses in emerging adults revealed that identity trajectory marked by high moratorium (exploration without commitment) and low commitment are associated with poorer psychosocial functioning (Smith et al., 2020).

The third objective of the present study was to analyze the relationship between identity formations and self and interpersonal functioning. The findings of this study indicates that there is a link between identity formations, self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. This indicates significant positive correlation between self and interpersonal functioning and identity development. The results are similar to a qualitative interview with Afghan refugees identifying culture identity among traumatized Afghan and Iraqi Refugees by Groen et al., (2017). This study examined three main domains of identity namely social, ethnic and personal identity revealing that trauma, acculturative pressures and stress experiences influenced both social functioning and self-concept. In this same study personal identity was linked to adjustment and psychological stress in the host society.

The fourth objective of the study was to analyze gender differences in identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning The findings of the present study revealed that gender was significantly linked with dimensions of identity development while no gender differences were found on the level of self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugee population. One of the supporting findings of Ambreen et al., (2025) on identity and belonging among Afghan women showed that because of host society norms hybrid identities are influenced despite women having strong cultural identity connections. In the same way higher acculturation stress was reported by female refugees as compared to male refugees who experienced greater identity crisis. Self-concept and interpersonal functioning are affected because the acculturation stress is positively associated thereby indicating that gender moderates stress which in turn affect both self and interpersonal functioning as well as self-concept.

Limitations

Limitations of the present study are:

• Due to the ongoing sociopolitical situation in Pakistan at the time this research was conducted, the participants were not willing to disclose information freely due to concerns of the information being shared with the government agencies. This might have had some impact on the findings of the study.
• Due to the small sample of the study the generalizability of the findings is limited. Only a small sample could be gathered due to the sociopolitical situation in Pakistan that limited access to more data.
• The study design was cross sectional research design. More detailed findings could have been obtained had the study been longitudinal as it would have shown the changes in coping mechanism and identity formation overtime. This study couldn’t provide deeper insight into contextual and developmental influences.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study and limitations of the present study, following points are recommended for future studies:

• To improve generalizability of the study future studies should include a diverse population and large sample as it will give a much detailed understanding.
• Selection of sample from different organizations of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa can give a much clearer picture and will help in more robust findings. It will also help in controlling differences that exist between organizations especially when multiple organizations are involved.
• Longitudinal research design is recommended to look at changes that happen overtime in identity formation and self and interpersonal functioning.
• Using the findings of this study, it is recommended that intervention programs should be designed by the organizations and mental health professionals for supporting healthy identity development and adaptive coping strategies in the face of uncertainty.

Clinical Implications

The present study has important implications for mental health professionals especially the ones who are working with individuals experiencing difficulties related to identity, self and interpersonal functioning.

• They should work on incorporating Identity focused intervention and assessment into their therapeutic practice. For individuals facing environmental, developmental or social stressors therapists should design interventions that promote clarity of self-concept, a coherent sense of self and self-awareness.
• For interpersonal functioning there should be a focus on developing communication skills and healthy emotional expression. Therapies like family based intervention, interpersonal therapy and group therapy can help strengthen social support systems and develop healthy relational dynamics.
• Training and psychoeducational programs should also be developed within communities and organizations whose aim is to enhance identity development, resilience and interpersonal skills and promote overall well-being and reducing psychological distress.

Conclusion

The goal of the present study was to examine identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning among Afghan refugees. The sample of the study was collected from four organizations i.e. N=323 with the age range between 18-29 years.

The study revealed significant challenges in the process of identity formation which had an effect on self and interpersonal functioning. The scales used in this study are Dimensions of Identity Development (DIDS), and Self and interpersonal functioning (SIFS).

The findings of this study also showed that maladaptive dimensions (ruminative exploration) of identity formation are significantly linked with impaired self and interpersonal functioning. This further strengthen the point that within the context of trauma and displacement there are serious consequences because of prolonged identity disturbance. In relation to this, the positive (adaptive) identity dimensions like commitment making, identification with commitment, exploration in breadth and exploration in depth negatively predicted impairment in functioning among Afghan refugees.

Additionally, strong links were identified between identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning which shows healthy social functioning and personal development whereas, significant negative correlation between self and interpersonal functioning and identity development were predicted.

Furthermore, gender differences were investigated in terms of identity formation, self and interpersonal functioning. On the scale of dimensions of identity development males reported higher dysfunction compared to females which indicated statistically significant difference while no differences were found in both genders in terms of interpersonal functioning and adaptive coping mechanisms. This study contributes important insight into mental health experiences of refugees within the complicated social environments.

References