Abstract

This work deals with the use of adjectives in the depiction of Kashmir in Pakistani and Indian Newspapers. This study investigates the differences between Pakistani and Indian media with reference to the representation of the issue of Kashmir. For this purpose, a corpus of newspaper editorial articles from both Pakistani and Indian newspapers was compiled. The data was tagged with help of AntTag and was analyzed using AntConc software to see the differences between Pakistani and Indian newspapers with reference to the representation of Kashmir. The findings suggest that there is a lot of differences between Pakistani and Indian media with reference to the use of adjectives for the depiction of Kashmir. The findings also suggest that the depiction of Kashmir in both newspapers is biased and subjective.

Key Words

Corpus Linguistics, Indian Media, Pakistani Media, Analysis of Adjectives, Kashmir Issue

Introduction

The paper investigates the use of adjectives in the representation of Kashmir in both Pakistani and Indian Newspapers published between January 2019 and October 2020. Since the very first day of independence, India and Pakistan have folded their sleeves to let each other down. The key issue that brought these two nuclear-armed neighbors to the brink of a nuclear war in Kashmir. The unsolved issue of Kashmir began on the very first day of independence for both countries. They both had a steely commitment to Kashmir and wanted to be part of their respective states. Both used strong adjectives like "Sherag" and "Akand Baharat" for Kashmir.

Corpus Linguistics is a newly emerging area in which more and more research is being conducted to explore the unsolved problems of different areas. Accordingly, this study explores the respective position of two rival nations in relation to the issue of Kashmir while using adjectives in the editorial of two newspapers, The Dawn and The Hindustan Times. The choice of these two newspapers is based on their popularity and accessibility to the public. Thirteen (13) editorial articles were taken from each newspaper. This study aims to highlight the respective position of the two newspapers on the issue of Kashmir. It shows the representation of the issue of Kashmir in the editorials of their respective newspapers. This study compares the adjectives used in the editorial articles of each national newspaper, which shed light on the policies of each newspaper.

Research Objectives

1. To explore the most commonly used adjectives for Kashmir in both Pakistani and Indian Newspapers

2. To analyze the variations in the use of adjectives between Pakistani and Indian newspapers. 

Research Questions

1. What are the most commonly used adjectives for the representation of Kashmir in Pakistani and Indian newspaper editorials? 

2. How do the adjectives used for Kashmir in the two newspaper editorials reveal their respective positions on Kashmir Issue?




Significance

This work is important because, as far as we know, there is not much work done in this area of research. This work will therefore contribute to existing literature and help readers understand the use of lexical items for Kashmir by both Pakistani and Indian newspapers. 

Research Questions

1. What are the most commonly used adjectives for the representation of Kashmir in Pakistani and Indian newspaper editorials? 

2. How do the adjectives used for Kashmir in the two newspaper editorials reveal their respective positions on Kashmir Issue?




Significance

This work is important because, as far as we know, there is not much work done in this area of research. This work will therefore contribute to existing literature and help readers understand the use of lexical items for Kashmir by both Pakistani and Indian newspapers. 

Literature Review

The comparison of two print media newspapers in rival countries needs objectivity. In order to get a true and neutral analysis, one must know all the pros and cons of the task. It is therefore important to define and explain briefly, with the help of the linguistic work of past linguists, the presentation of core terms.




Lexical Category Adjective 

The term adjective comes from the Latin word adject-which means "added" It was a translation of the ancient Greek epithet (ónoma) ("attributive name"), and in the late 14th century the term was introduced into the English language through the Old French adjective. Moreover, given the Oxford English assumption that adjectives are an independent category of nouns and verbs, many authors (Cabredo 2010, Dixon 2005, Baker 2003 and Matthews 2015) agree that the boundaries between adjectives and nouns and adjectives and verbs may be vague. Moreover, the universality of adjectives has been questioned. As Cabredo (2010) states, "it is difficult to identify nouns, verbs and adjectives cross-linguistically" Adjectives are of two kinds: attributive and predicative adjectives. Attributive adjectives are defined as those adjectives that "modify a noun directly" (Cabredo, 2010) and are found before the noun that is changing-although in some cases they may become just after the noun has been found-and predicative adjectives are those that can be found after the verb: expensive shoes that I like. (Attributive) The shoes that I like are expensive. (Predictive)




Concordance Model of Analysis

The analysis of emerging significant lexis and lexical patterns has been continuously complemented by a review of their concordances. The concordance gives the analyst examples of a word or a cluster in its immediate co-text (Baker, 2008). The number of words on either side of the word/cluster in focus can usually be set to meet the needs of the researcher, and the rules of concordance can be extended to the entire text. Correlation lines can also be sorted in a variety of ways to help the analyst examine different patterns of the same word/cluster. Concordance analysis makes it possible to examine language features in co-text, taking into account the context of which the analyst is aware and which he can infer from the co-text. It's no wonder, then, that it's proven to be the only Corpus Linguistics discourse analyst tool that seems to be convenient to use. This, in turn, indicates that Corpus Linguistics is no stranger to 'qualitative' analysis. In addition, since the concordance analysis looks at a known number of concordance lines, the findings may be grouped (e.g. Topoi related to a specific word or cluster) and quantified in absolute and relative terms to identify possible patterns.




Critical Discourse Analysis

This study aims to critically analyze the representation of the Kashmir issue between two countries in the editorial of two newspapers Dawn and Hindustan Times. For this, works have been elaborated by various theorists in the broad interdisciplinary field of CDA. The discourse is a piece of the conversation, be it formal or informal, but when it comes from a powerful source, it takes on several different dimensions. In a political context, discourse plays a critical role in gaining public support for any implicit or explicit agendas. The discourse is thus an exploitative tool that requires due attention and critical analysis from linguists. Otherwise, the discursive practices would be hidden. To delve beneath the surface of discourse, certain critical tactics and theories have emerged in linguistics, one of which is critical discourse analysis. One of the first proponents of the said theory is Dijk (1998), who defines Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as: 'it is a kind of discourse analytical research that primarily examines how social abuse of power, dominance, and inequality are reproduced. , and resisted by lyrics and talk in the social and political context” (Dijk, 1998, p. 352). It is concerned with the analysis of discursive practices such as hegemony, racial injustice, and discrimination of basic rights within a socio-political context. Meyer (2001) defines the term "Critical" in the CDA as the understanding of language from its social, political, and economic perspective. Through the analysis, it attempts to make the connections between the powers exercised through language within a broader socio-political context. According to him, the discourse reflects the ideology and identity constructed by social relations. The CDA not only traces power and social relations but also tries to challenge and criticize them. The techniques used by the CDA are specified by Corson (1995), who says that critical discourse analysis applies certain techniques, such as textual and stylistic features, to uncover social relationships and identities from a linguistic perspective. Blommaert (2005), Jorgensen, and Phillips (2002) further assume that linguistic and social variables in CDA research are closely linked, because “whenever we approach a text or discourse, we approach it from a linguistic perspective. Approach and emphasize how language choice in a particular discourse about the socio-political context tries to analyze discursive practices” (Sipra, 2013, p. 29). 

Fowler (1996) says that the goal of the CDA is to facilitate the conscious emergence of the people concerning any exploitative and manipulative discourse in its socio-cultural context. It is intended to make the links between discourse practices, social practices, social structures, and language transparent, links that may be opaque to the layman. In addition to CDA, another important methodological component within this research is the use of a corpus to locate the lexical items used to project the acquired agenda as true and real. The dichotomy of two views on the Kashmir issue is also present in newspaper articles. They have been scrutinized by studying the linguistic items used in the representation of the Kashmir issue using Corpus. Corpus Linguistics can help identify the meaning of including and excluding certain linguistic and textual features. It uses empirical evidence as a reliable source to classify and investigate the language structures used. This evidence from the data also helps interpret the observed discourse to determine the "probabilities, trends, concurrent events, or groupings of features" (Cheng & Lam 2012, p. 175). From these observations, the preferences and limitations associated with these characteristics can be measured "for what they are" (Hanks, 2012, p. 405). These conclusions are largely based on the study of collocations, concordances, adjectives, and keywords. These features represent real examples of language that can be qualitatively analyzed to understand their practical and attitudinal meaning (Sinclair 1996, McEnery & Wilson 1996). Therefore, Corpus Linguistics treats language as an inseparable part of an ideology, such language analysis yields a high level of objectivity that cannot be achieved by intuition and introspection (Baker, 2006, p. 3).

In media-related studies, the researchers have attested to the high degree of objectivity present in studies supported by Corpus Linguistics. The prudent use of programs and statistical methods used in corpora can help minimize the influence of prejudices about semantic and linguistic content. It also provides a basis for conducting a fixed language study (Baker, 2006). Despite being two different methodological viewpoints, CDA and corpus are quite often used together in studies.

Corpus Linguistics (CL) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) largely cover quantitative and qualitative analyzes, respectively. Using these approaches makes quantitative results more consistent and reliable, and qualitative analysis more specific and accurate (McEnery & Wilson, 2001). Corpus Linguistics (CL) uses a large collection of texts that are considered representative and this approach helps to keep the researcher and the data at a relatively greater distance (Hoffmann et al., 2008). However, this approach may also jeopardize the findings as the statistical tools used in the study can provide a more general explanation of the data being studied. On the other hand, CDA helps to analyze the topic under study more thoroughly. The data is analyzed by taking into account the socio-political context. The study's findings can be broadened by using these two approaches in a study.

Research Methodology

This study falls within the scope of corpus-based mixed-method research. The Concordance model introduced by Baker (2008) was used to analyze the corpora. The collected corpora acted as a stimulus to support the pre-existing theoretical construct of the media, especially print media, which established and secured national interest through the use of editorial articles. Therefore, the media is not seen as a fair and objective tool, but rather as the main source of dissemination and development of the political agenda. The study relates to the concept of Critical Discourse Analysis developed by Fairclough (1992). He explained CDA as a kind of analysis that sheds light on the different relationships between different social and ethnic groups. In his opinion, power is exercised through hegemonic control and the dominant discourse of the elite (Fairclough. 1992). He argued that the role of language in society is to discriminate against social relations and to play a discursive role that exploits the rights of the masses. He was of the point that language was used for the exercise of power and hegemony. The present study focuses on the use of the lexical item 'Adjectives' in the editorial articles of Pakistani and Indian newspapers to present the respective position of the two countries. Representing the issue of Kashmir in the editorial articles of the Pakistani and Indian newspapers may reveal bias and subjectivity towards the people of Kashmir and international organizations. The 'adjectives' analysis can help us to investigate the use of language use in the depiction of the issue of Kashmir by comparing two country newspaper editorial articles. Both states considered the territory of Kashmir to be their own and accused the other of being an illegal occupier.

 

Table 1: List of Editorials from Dawn, Pakistani Newspaper

No:	Name of Editorial Article	Date of Publication
1.       1	Focus on Kashmir	16 Sep 2019
2.       2	Kashmir and Militancy	23 Sep 2019
3.       3	Focus on Kashmir	08 Oct 2019
4.       4	Kashmir Reactions	24 Oct 2019
5.       5	Kashmir at UN	07 Sep 2020
6.       6	Kashmir Repression	04Aug 2020
7.       7	A Matter of Intent	15 Oct 2020
8.       8	India’s Losing Battle	25 Sep 2020
9.       9	OIC Criticism	09  Aug 2020
10.    10	Let Kashmir Breathe	17 Jul 2020
11.    11	New Map	06 Aug 2020
12.    12	Facebook Vs. Kashmir	01 Jan 2020

 

Table 2: List of Editorials from Hindustan Times, Indian Newspaper

No:	Name of Editorial Article	Date of Publication
1.       1	Kashmir, a month on: Well managed globally, now look inwards	06 Sep 2019
2.       2	Kashmir: The diplomatic battle	11 Sep 2019
3.       3	The limits of the Kashmir outreach	30 Oct 2019
4.       4	In Kashmir, time for political dialogue	16 Oct 2020
5.       5	On India, Pakistan back-and-forth over Kashmir, UN chief delivers clear message	29 Jun 2020
6.       6	A testing week for India	02 Aug 2020
7.       7	In J&K, time for dialogue	02 Sep 2020
8.       8	The BJP’s Kashmir move is bold but has risks	10 Jun 2020
9.       9	Why Pakistan is wrong, again	15 Oct 2020
10.    10	Pakistan’s cartographic absurdity	05 Aug 2020
11.    11	A reset in Kashmir policy	01 Jul 2020
12.    12	In Kashmir, integrate Kashmiris	04 Aug 2020

 

Twelve articles from each newspaper were randomly selected and used for the corpus compilation. The corpora were analyzed with the help of AntConc software. The analysis was carried out using the AntConc Wordlist and Concordance function (Anthony, 2007). The wordlist function of the software helped to obtain lists of words that were displayed according to their frequency of occurrence within the corpus. Then, with the help of the concordance application, KWIC (Keyword in Context) or the concordance of the Adjectives were located which helped to provide the most recurrent collocation patterns of the adjectives. These adjectives have been extracted with the help of Antconc software.

 

Theoretical Framework

The Baker (2008) Concordance Analysis Model provides a list of adjectives. The lexical item "adjectives' is an important part by which the language can be understood. The lexical approach of Lewis (1990s) gives the idea that adjectives are an important part of the language in which opinions are presented. But the main problem with adjectives is that they do not appear to have any unique properties that define them, both at semantic and syntactic levels (Baker 2003, Fábregas 2016).

1.              

2.             Data Analysis

The corpus data analyzed and presented in the form of a table. The table given below presents the frequency of adjectives found in the editorial of Dawn and Hindustan Times(HT). As we can see Pakistani newspaper used 506 adjectives and the Indian newspaper used 429 adjectives. There are similarities in the use of adjectives but the context is different. 

 

Table 3: List of Adjectives used in both newspapers

Words	Frequency (Dawn/HT)	Words	Frequency(Dawn/HT)	Words	Frequency (Dawn/HT)
Acceptable	1/0	Grim	3/0	Legal	1/1
Affected	1/0	Global	6/2	legitimate	1/0
Autonomous	4/0	Gloomy	1/0	occupied	18/1
Brutal	3/0	Happy	1/0	Political	7/29
Constitutional	1/9	Ideological	1/1	Power	2/1
Cruel	1/0	Illegitimate	1/0	Pakistani	2/6
Dangerous	1/0	Independent	2/1	Peaceful	2/2
Deplorable	1/0	Indian	25/13	Rival	1/0
Devastating	1/0	Indigenous	1/0	Right	2/5
Diplomatic	4/5	Inhumane	1/0	Sponsored	1/3
Disastrous	2/0	International	3/9	Strategic	2/1
Disputed	4/0	Just	5/2	Terrorist	2/2
Draconian	2/0	Kashmiri	12/8

 

Above Table 3, shed light on the presentation of the Kashmir issue through adjectives by the two famous newspaper’s editorials. Both newspapers try to present Kashmir as their integral part, regardless of hearing the voices of the suppressed Kashmiri people.

The sad words; affected, grim, gloomy, inhumane, deplorable, devastating, disastrous used by Pakistani newspaper but did not by an Indian newspaper. This shows that Pakistan is more concerned with the people of Kashmir in terms of living under the strict watch of seven lac Indian military. The Hindustan Times (HT) has no concern with the people of Kashmir, that how they are living, happy or sad. That is why HT did not use any of these words in the editorial.       

The most amazing thing which I came through is the word ‘Happy’ though both have no concern with that even the international institutions otherwise Kashmir issue would not be unsolved for seven decades. Dawn has used 1 time, but HT, as usual, has not. As it is stated above, Indians are not concerning the happiness or sadness of the Kashmiri people, they want only that Kashmir should be part of India, nothing else. They know that the hearts and minds of the Kashmiri people are not with them, that is how they deployed 700,000 armies personal in Kashmir. They are there to cut down the voices of peaceful Kashmiris. They even stopped the internet service and electricity.

Legal terms; a constitutional word used by HT 9 times, Dawn 1 time. It means that India has an issue with the constitutionality of the Kashmir issue. Pakistan has no issue with that because she has the backup of all international institutions including the UN. The word diplomatic used 4\5 times of Dawn and HT expressed the situation that both are looking for the favor of friends to support the Kashmir issue. These four terms; legal, illegal, illegitimate, legitimate were used in respect of getting legality of their respective position but yet to get authenticity.

The most interesting comparison is the Indian and Pakistani words. Both newspapers used the opponent half. They know that the opponent has no place to give weightage. Dawn newspaper used Pakistani word 47 times, the Indian word 25. Hindustan Times (HT) used the Indian word 13 times while the word Pakistani only 6 times. The envy is there from their presentation of the opponent in the print media.

The alarming comparison is Kashmiri word, Pakistani newspaper used miraculously 12 times, but the Indian newspaper only 8 times, which is more astonishing for me. It shows how Pakistani media projected the Kashmir issue and how many times. As far as Indian media is concern, so it shows their alienation from the core issue of Asia that’s Kashmir issue.

 

KWIC concordance Words in context

Figure 1 shows the word Kashmir in a Pakistani newspaper in a different context. In Dawn, the adjective Kashmiri word is used for the benefit of the Kashmiri people and discusses the rights of the Kashmiri people, such as; the fundamental right of Kashmiri, the crushing of the Kashmiri desire, the freedom of Kashmiri, the wishes of the Kashmiri people, the rights of Kashmiri, and so on. Every word related to Kashmir displays solidarity with the Kashmiri people.

Figure 1

KWIC Concordances for word Kashmiri in Dawn newspaper Editorial Articles



In figure 2, concordance is very interesting, as it is from Hindustan Times, and the word Kashmiri is used 8 times but different in context. Here the word Kashmiri shows normal people as other Indian people. Now the context is pretty amazing; easy for one Kashmiri, Kashmiri parties, Kashmiri people, Kashmiri political elite, and Kashmiri street. The word Kashmiri is being used by the Indian newspaper as simple and common. They pretend that they are happy and living a normal life like other Indian people, but the reality is almost the opposite of their claims.

Figure 2

KWIC Concordances for word Kashmiri in Hindustan Times newspaper Editorial Articles



In figure 3, Dawn used a range of adjectives to present the Kashmir issue. Every word shows the cruelty of Indians to the Kashmiri people. The words; Indian army, Indian atrocities, Indian brutality, Indian drama, Indian guns, Indian media, Indian repression, Indian propaganda, and many more. Almost all words of Indians show the misbehavior of Indians to the Kashmiri people. 

Figure 3

KWIC Concordances for word Indian in Dawn newspaper Editorial Articles

Figure 3

KWIC Concordances for word Indian in Dawn newspaper Editorial Articles



In figure 4, the word Indian is used in Indian newspapers in a positive context. Look at the words; Indian citizen, Indian flag, Indian laws, Indian position, the Indian side, the Indian state, Indian position, and so on.

Figure 4

KWIC Concordances for word Indian in Hindustan Times newspaper Editorial Articles



As it was expected that both newspapers projected the opponent negatively, and it was proved in this comparison and the use of adjectives regarding the Kashmir issue. Dawn newspaper used the word Pakistani 2 times and in both times very affirmatively, like; senior Pakistani official, Pakistani official mentioned. 

Figure 5

KWIC Concordances for word Pakistani in Dawn newspaper Editorial Articles



The Hindustan Times used the word, Pakistan, negatively, simply to project Pakistan as an illegal occupier of Kashmiri territory. The context of the word is hasty Pakistani, first-time Pakistani official, Pakistani side, Pakistani soil, Pakistani Taliban, and Pakistani territory.

Figure 6

KWIC Concordances for word Pakistani in Hindustan Times newspaper Editorial Articles



All the adjectives used in the newspaper show the subjectivity of the newspaper. And it was shown in the concordance lines that the Indian newspaper shows Kashmir to be a normal state without any issue. The Indian newspaper has made every effort to blame Pakistan and other organizations. The comparison shows how the Newspapers of these two rival countries are far behind reality and, in particular, use print media as a tool to malign each other.

Findings and Conclusion

This study investigated the manipulative role of the media in developing and circulating half of the facts on the Kashmir issue. A corpus-based approach was used to analyze newspaper coverage of the Kashmir problem. A comparison was made of the adjectives used in news-editorial articles in Indian and Pakistani newspapers. For this research, a total of two corpora of 10,548 words was compiled on the basis of 24 editorial articles in both newspapers. Twelve articles from Dawn newspaper and 12 from the Hindustan Times have been used in this study.

The data analysis generated a number of instances (See data analysis section) in which the newspapers present a visible gap between the real and the false. The frequency with which Kashmir is represented by the media has a significant impact on the development of the situation in the region. These labels serve as the main driving force behind the formation of certain attitudes towards the people of Kashmir. The findings revealed that the use of adjectives in the newspapers showed the position of both countries on Kashmir. The use of adjectives in Indian editorial suggests that Kashmir is a settled issue and no further negotiations are needed. The Indian newspaper attempts to portray Pakistan as a violator of international norms, and the Pakistani newspaper is responding to the Indian claims and exposing them. Newspapers attempt to manipulate the facts by using appropriate adjectives. Another very alarming finding is the use of adjectives with negative connotations against the opponent. This research aimed to familiarize readers with the possible role of print media in establishing, reiterating, and propagating misconceptions of real problems.

  To sum up the above discussion, it can be argued that newspapers do not, always, follow an objective and impartial course of action in the depiction of regional and global issues such as Kashmir. It may be recommended that an unbiased and neutral approach should be followed by the media houses to present facts to their readers

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